Dr Mashkur Khan

Dr Mashkur Khan
General internal medicine
Ashtead


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Dr Mashkur Khan

General internal medicine in
Ashtead
Epsom &
London

MBBS FRCP(Lond) FRCPI

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Dr Mashkur Khan areas of expertise:

Professional statement

Dr Mashkur Khan is a leading London-based consultant physician, with a special interest in geriatric medicine and diseases common in the elderly population. From his main base at Ashtead Hospital, and his private clinics across London, he provides clinical excellence in all aspects of general medicine, deals with multi-system pathology and has vast experience in multi-system diseases which affect the quality of life of the patient, complex fainting and blackouts, along with patients who present with an acute crisis, diagnostic dilemmas and atypical presentations.

Alongside his clinical practice at both Ashtead hospital and across London, Dr Khan also devotes time to teaching and examining future doctors, and is an active member of a number of associations in his field.

 Videos of doctor

Atypical presentations in the aging pat...

 Doctor's articles

Comorbidity
Multiple morbidities: how do you treat ...

 Credentials

GMC: ‍4263177

 Professional experience

• More than 20 years of experience
• Consultant Physician, Ashtead Hospital (present)
• Consultant Physican, Epsom General Hospital (2002 - present)
• Consultant Physician, Spire St Anthony's Hospital (present)
• Dementia Lead, Epsom and St Helier University Hospitals NHS Trust
• Honorary Senior Lecturer, St George's, University of London

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 Sub-specialties

• Syncope
• Complex blackouts
• Complex Parkinson's disease and it's variants
• Balance disorders
• Blood pressure changes
• Fainting
• Memory loss
• Change in functioning of the brain, affecting the thinking of the patient
• Unexplained fatigue and tiredness
• Incontinence
• Falls
• All aspects of general and geriatric medicine

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 Positions in public associations

• Section President of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Royal Society of Medicine (2016 - 2018)
• Previous Treasurer of Royal Society of Medicine
• Clinical Lead of Elderly Care
• Trust-wide Lead for Dementia
• Organiser National Consensus Meeting on Syncope,Royal Society of Medicine 2011
• Co-Chairman South West Thames Movement Disorder Society 2011-2016
• Organiser of the Modern Management on Incontinence, Royal Society of Medicine

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 Teaching posts

• Honorary Senior Lecturer and Teacher, St George's, University of London
• Examiner, MRCP PACES clinical examination, Royal College of Physicians of London
• Host Examiner, MRCP PACES clinical examination at Epsom General Hospital
• Faculty Member, Undergraduate Education St.George's University of London
• District Tutor, Royal College of Physicians of London, Epsom General Hospital
• Training Programme Director, Core Medical Training, South West London Sector
• Member of the Training Programme Board, South West Sector London Deanery for Geriatric Medicine
• Delivers the syncope lecture to medical students and pharmacists, St George's, University of London
• Teacher, University of London

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 Education

• MBBS, Dhaka University (1989)
• FRCP 2006
• FRCPI 2011
• Associate of the Higher Education Academy

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 Publications and conferences

• Unexpected cause of deranged liver function: Pyogenic liver abscess. Cheung, Temple, Khan
• Research in Care Homes: Age and ageing. AA-17-0653
• Presidential Lecture on the Overlap between Syncope and Balance Disorder
• Speaker at the 'Evidence-based recovery in older people: Managing impairing medical conditions' for the Royal Society of Medicine (May 2018)
• https://www.nature.com/articles/ncpcardio0068
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3031185/
• https://www.rsm.ac.uk/events/events-listing/2017-2018/sections/telemedicine-ehealth-section/tek02-%E2%80%98robocare%E2%80%99-the-ethical-and-practical-issues-of-using-robots-in-caregiving.aspx
• https://www.rsm.ac.uk/events/events-listing/2017-2018/sections/geriatrics-gerontology-section/evidence-based-recovery-in-older-people-managing-impairing-medical-conditions.aspx
• https://www.rsm.ac.uk/events/events-listing/2017-2018/sections/geriatrics-gerontology-section/managing-fragility.aspx
• https://videos.rsm.ac.uk/video/atypical-presentations-in-the-aging-patient-how-to-avoid-the-common-pitfalls

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 Prizes and awards

• Awarded Post Graduate Diploma in Medical Leadership, University of London and Royal College of Physicians
• Local Clinical Excellence Awards

 Professional membership

• Member of the Movement Disorders Society, USA
• Fellow of the Society of Geriatric Medicine, USA
• Member of the British Geriatric Society
• Regional Fellow at the Royal Society of Medicine
• Fellow of the Society of Geriatric Cardiology, FSGC USA

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Languages spoken

  • English

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Diseases, Medical Tests and Treatments

Comorbidity

What is comorbidity? A comorbidity is a primary disease or condition that co-occurs with but is often independent of, another disease or disorder. ...

Dementia

Dementia is the progressive loss of cognitive functions, mainly due to brain damage caused by strokes or Alzheimer’s. It greatly affects the patient´s ...

Fluctuating blood pressure

Fluctuation in the blood pressure can be due to stress, hormonal changes, or ingestion of certain foods or medicines. 

Geriatric medicine

What is geriatric medicine? Geriatric medicine is a growing medical specialty that focuses on the care and treatment of older people. Older age ...

Parkinson's

What is Parkinson's? Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects the neurons that produce dopamine. Normally this disorder develops slowly in people from 55 to 65 years of age. What are the symptoms of Parkinson’s? This disorder causes a progressive deterioration of certain brain functions in the patient that manifest with various symptoms, including: A tremor in the arms and or legs Limb rigidity Balance problems Urinary problems Depression Speech can be affected Symptoms present differently in each patient and experiences of this disorder can be very different. What causes Parkinson’s? The exact cause of Parkinson's is unknown, however, it can attributed to a loss of nerve cells in the part of the brain called the substantia nigra. This loss of cells causes a reduced production of dopamine which is needed to regulate movement. However, it is not known what causes this loss of nerve cells. Parkinson’s disease can run in families, and passed from parent to child, however, this is a rare way to inherit the condition. Can Parkinson’s be prevented? Since the cause of this disease is not known, there is no known way to prevent it. What is the treatment for Parkinson’s? There is no known cure for Parkinson’s, however, treatments can help to manage and relieve symptoms and improve quality of life. Treatments include physiotherapy and occupational therapy, medication and in some cases surgery (deep brain stimulation). One of the important parts of the treatment is physical rehabilitation, which consists in the maintenance of muscle tone and motor functions, hence why daily physical activity is important. ...

Syncope

What is syncope? Syncope, also known as fainting, is the sudden loss of consciousness for a brief period. This is usually caused by insufficient blood flow to the brain, and is often associated with low blood pressure (hypotension). What are the symptoms of syncope? Before fainting, you may feel weakness or nausea. The following are also warning signs experienced just before fainting: Feeling clammy and sweaty Confusion Light-headedness Blurred vision Yawning Ringing in your ears After fainting, you normally regain consciousness within 20 seconds, and you may feel weak for a short period afterwards. You may also not remember what you were doing just before you fainted. What causes syncope? Fainting (syncope) is caused by a reduction in blood flow to the brain. This can be disrupted by several factors: Triggers (e.g. heat, pain, sitting or standing up suddenly, an unpleasant sight or even swallowing) Heart problems Reflex anoxic seizures (common in children) Low blood pressure (hypotension) Low blood sugar levels Medications Dehydration Can syncope be prevented? There is no specific treatment that prevents the onset of syncope, but if a person is prone to fainting, you can either avoid known triggers, or if you feel an episode coming on, lie down and lift your legs or sit down and put your head between your knees. This keeps blood flowing to your brain. What is the treatment for syncope? Treatment depends on the cause of the syncope. If there is an underlying health condition, then tests will need to confirm this and treated accordingly. The tests that the doctor can order can include: Blood tests Heart rate monitoring Echocardiography Electrocardiography Chest x-ray Often, after fainting, no further treatment is needed, but measures to avoid future episodes can be taken, such as avoiding triggers. ...

Abdominal pain

What is abdominal pain? Abdominal pain can be a symptom of many conditions. It is the name given to pain that radiates between the chest and the groin. The most common cause is: constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, food allergies or intolerances, or food poisoning. There are different types of abdominal pain, including:  Burning pain: could be caused by gastritis, an ulcer, or reflux. Colic pain: could be due to intestinal issues such as diarrhoea or constipation. For females it could be due to menstrual problems and the pain may be located around the uterus. Stitches: caused by excess gases or abdominal swelling.  Condition prognosis          Condition prognosis depends of the cause of the abdominal pain. The causes may range from simple issues such as excess gas to more complicated conditions such as appendicitis or kidney stones. When a person has abdominal pain, the cause of it must be looked at thoroughly to be able to properly treat it. There are some symptoms which may be a sign of a more serious condition, such as: Having a temperature above 38 ºC Vomiting Blood in the stools Sudden weight loss  Apathy or pallor. What are the symptoms? Different symptoms may indicate what is causing the abdominal pain. It may simply be due to indigestion, however when the pain is strong, it may be due to a more serious issue with the appendix, the gallbladder, the pancreas, or the kidneys among others.   Medical tests Different tests can be carried out to determine the cause of abdominal pain: Colonoscopy  Abdominal ultrasound Endoscopy Abdominal CT scan Blood test. What causes it? There could be many causes for abdominal pain, it is important to find the cause and seek medical attention as soon as possible. The most common causes for abdominal pain include: Irritable bowel syndrome Allergies or intolerances Food poisoning Gastroenteritis Constipation Appendicitis Bowel block Diverticulitis Ulcers.   How can it be prevented? Abdominal pain can be prevented by following a healthy and balanced diet, and eating small meals often. This will help digestion. It is also important to maintain a healthy weight and to exercise regularly. Stress in known as a cause of cramps and nausea.   What is the treatment?     Treatment will depend on the cause and location of the pain. The specialist will recommend what treatment should be used after careful examination. Treatment to treat mild causes include: Antacids if the pain is due to indigestion or reflux. Antiflatulents to relieve pain caused by gas or diarrhoea. Antibiotics used to treat infections.  What specialist should I see? Generally, the specialist who treats abdominal pain is a gastroenterologist. Digestive system specialists study the digestive tract including the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, anus, as well as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. This specialty treats common issues and pathological issues. It treat conditions that may affect other parts of the body and other organs.            ...

Acute kidney failure

What is kidney failure? Renal failure, or kidney failure, occurs when the kidneys are damaged so are no longer able to fully perform their functions, leading to accumulation of dangerous waste products in the body, elevation of blood pressure and retention of excess fluids. If your kidneys fail, you will need regular treatment sessions that carry out the functions they used to carry out. Dialysis and kidney transplant are the current treatments advised. Each method has pros and cons; depending on the treatment selected, the patient will have to completely change their lifestyle, i.e. their diet, physical activity and everyday routine. There are two types of kidney failure: Acute renal failure (ARF): sudden impairment of renal function usually manifested via three functions: excretion, regulation of fluid volume and regulation of ion composition. Chronic renal failure (CRF): this type of renal failure is characterised by lack of symptoms until the effects worsen. It is important to diagnose the disease early because treatments will not have the desired effect in advanced stages of renal failure. Prognosis The disease is potentially fatal and it may require a type of intensive treatment; although the kidneys may function for a few weeks or months after the appropriate treatment is given. In other cases, chronic renal failure or end-stage renal disease is present. There is a higher risk of death when the renal failure is preceded by surgery, traumatic injury or serious infection in a patient with heart disease, lung disease or recent stroke. There are other factors that can increase the risk of death, including but not limited to: advanced age, infection, loss of blood from the gastrointestinal tract and when renal failure is progressive. Symptoms of renal failure Renal failure progresses slowly and sometimes the symptoms do not manifest until the disease is at an advanced stage. In the end stage of the disease, there may be some symptoms caused by accumulation of waste products and excess fluid in the body. If the kidneys begin to fail, the following symptoms may occur: Itchiness Muscle cramps Nausea or vomiting Not feeling hunger Swelling of feet and ankles Excessive urine or not urinating enough Difficulty breathing Problems sleeping In acute renal failure, one or more of the following symptoms may occur: Abdominal pain Back pain Diarrhoea Fever Nose bleeds Rash Vomiting Medical tests for renal failure Many patients may have generalized inflammation due to the retention of fluids. The physician may investigate the patient and hear a cardiac murmur, lung crackles or signs of inflammation of the lining of the heart when they auscultate the heart and lungs using a stethoscope. Tests vary from a few days to 2 weeks. Some of the tests are: BUN Creatinine clearance Serum creatinine Urinalysis The specialist may also perform abdominal ultrasound with the aim of diagnosing renal failure. Other tests are an abdominal CT scan or also an abdominal MRI scan that can reveal whether there is an obstruction in the urinary tracts. Blood tests may help to diagnose some of the causes of renal failure. Arterial blood gases and blood biochemical analysis may reveal metabolic acidosis. Causes of renal failure Causes of and risk factors for renal failure are described below.  In the first instance, it must be noted that there are several causes of the possible damage to the kidneys such as: Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) Renal autoimmune disease: acute nephritic syndrome or interstitial nephritis Reduced blood flow due to very low blood pressure, which may be caused by: burns, dehydration, haemorrhage, injury, septic shock, serious disease or surgery. Disorders that cause coagulation in the blood vessels of the kidney such as: haemolytic uraemic syndrome, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), malignant hypertension, transfusion reaction or scleroderma. Infections that directly harm the kidney such as: acute pyelonephritis and septicaemia. Complications of pregnancy such as: placenta abruptio or placenta previa. An obstruction in the urinary tracts. Can it be prevented? It is difficult to prevent or predict renal failure. However the risk can be reduced by following these measures that promote good kidney health. Pay attention to the labelling of over-the-counter painkillers. Excessive intake of medications such as aspirin, paracetamol or ibuprofen may increase the risk of developing serious renal failure. If the patient has a kidney disease, diabetes or high blood pressure, taking these medications may increase the risk of developing renal failure. Medical support to avoid renal problems. In the case of patients with a kidney disease or a disorder that can increase the risk of developing renal failure such as diabetes or high blood pressure. The best prevention is to respect the treatment and to follow medical advice to reduce the effects of the disease. Attempt to lead a healthy lifestyle. An active lifestyle, balanced diet and abstainment from alcohol can help to prevent renal failure. Treatment for renal failure If the patient has life-threatening renal failure, they will need dialysis treatment or a kidney transplant to survive. Currently there is no cure for renal failure; however the life expectancy of many patients has been extended thanks to dialysis or following a kidney transplant. The specialist physician will analyse the best treatment for your situation. There are other treatments such as: Haemodialysis: this treatment uses a machine to clean the patient’s blood. It can be performed at a dialysis centre or at the patient’s home. Peritoneal dialysis: this treatment uses the lining of the abdomen called the peritoneum and a cleaning solution called dialysate to clean your blood. Peritoneal dialysis can be performed at the patient’s home or workplace if they cannot attend the medical centre. Kidney transplant: the healthy kidney may be from a living or deceased donor. The new kidney performs the functions that the patient’s own kidneys used to perform. Medical treatment: this is the alternative if the patient prefers not to start dialysis treatment or a kidney transplant. Medical treatment helps the patient to live better until their body stops working. It should be noted that medical treatment is not a cure for renal failure and the patient will not survive. Which specialist treats it? The medical specialist responsible for looking after the kidneys and urinary tracts is called a nephrologist. This specialist will determine whether the kidneys are affected, study the cause, the degree of infection and recommend appropriate care and treatment. When the nephrologist observes that the kidneys are not functioning correctly and cannot eliminate toxins, dialysis treatment is initiated. ...

Anaemia

What is anaemia? Anaemia is a condition in which there is a low concentration of haemoglobin in red blood cells or a deficiency in the number of red blood cells themselves. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the rest of the body and haemoglobin is an iron-rich protein that gives the blood its red colour and binds to oxygen molecules, allowing red blood cells to carry them. There are different types of anaemia: Iron deficiency anaemia Folate deficiency anaemia B12 deficiency anaemia Anaemia due to chronic disease Haemolytic anaemia (abnormal breakdown of red blood cells) Aplastic anaemia Pernicious anaemia Sickle-cell anaemia Thalassaemia   What are the symptoms of anaemia? The common symptoms of anaemia are: Fatigue/lack of energy Weakness Shortness of breath Dizziness Palpitations If the anaemia becomes severe, it can cause an increased heart rate, which may also be accompanied by chest pain, angina and can even lead to heart attacks. Other alarming symptoms are: Pale skin Nails that break easily Pica (the desire to eat non-food items, such as ice or dirt) Sore tongue Jaundice (if the anaemia is related to abnormal breakdown of red blood)   Causes of anaemia There are three main causes of anaemia: Blood loss Impaired red blood cells production Increased destruction of red blood cells These factors may be caused or exacerbated by other conditions. For example, more blood than normal may be lost during an injury because of clotting issues such as haemophilia; the lack of production of red blood cells may be due to an autoimmune disorder or infection that damages the bone marrow responsible for creating red blood cells; and the rapid destruction of red blood cells may be the result of hereditary spherocytosis, a disease that makes red blood cells too fragile. Also, the body needs vitamins, minerals and nutrients such as iron, vitamin B12 or folic acid to make red blood cells. Deficiencies in these can also contribute towards anaemia, meaning that conditions like coeliac disease, which affect the intestine’s ability to absorb the constituents of digested food, can lead to anaemia. Other possible causes include: Some medications Autoimmune disorders Chronic diseases, such as cancer, ulcerative colitis or arthritis. Genetic factors (especially in thalassemia and sickle cell anaemia)   Can anaemia be prevented? To prevent some episodes of anaemia, especially those that are related to iron and vitamin deficiency, it is advisable to follow a strict diet or take food supplements.   What is the treatment for anaemia? The treatment of anaemia will depend on the type, cause, and severity of the anaemia. The doctor may recommend: Changes in diet or supplements – increase the intake of iron, vitamin B12, folic acid or vitamin C. Medication – this may include antibiotics to treat infections, hormones to decrease menstrual bleeding or a number of other possible treatments. In severe cases, blood transfusions, stem cells or bone marrow transplants may be needed. ...

Angina

What is angina? Angina, or angina pectoris, is chest pain that occurs when the blood supply to the muscles of the heart is restricted. This is because the arteries supplying the heart become hardened and narrowed. An angina attack has been described as a dull and tight pain in the chest, which can spread to the left arm, neck or back. It can be triggered by physical activities or stress. It is always an emergency when an angina attack occurs and medical attention is imperative. Sometimes angina pain can be difficult to distinguish from other types of chest pain, and can be misinterpreted as indigestion. What are the symptoms of angina? The symptoms that are associated with angina include: Chest pain Pain in the neck, jaw, shoulder or back Nausea Tiredness and fatigue Shortness of breath Sweating Dizziness The chest pain felt during an angina attack has been described as an extremely heavy weight on the chest or that the chest has been squeezed. The duration of the angina attack can vary. The symptoms of angina in women can be different from the classic signs. A woman can experience nausea, shortness of breath, fatigue, abdominal pain without chest pain. This can result in a delay in seeking emergency treatment. What are the different types of angina? Stable angina is the most common type. This develops when the heart works harder, such as when exercising. It lasts for a short amount of time such as less than five minutes. It can disappear if the person experiencing the attack rests. An unstable angina is a medical emergency. This can occur even when a person is at rest and it is completely unexpected. It is severe and can last as long as 30 minutes. It can signal a heart attack. Risk factors of angina The following can increase the risk factor of an angina: Tobacco – smoking and regular exposure to second-hand smoke damages the interior walls of arteries and allows deposits of cholesterol to collect and block blood flow. Diabetes Hypertension (high blood pressure) High cholesterol or triglyceride levels – The wrong cholesterol, known as low-density lipoprotein (LDL) increases the risk of angina and heart attacks. Increase in age No exercise Overweight Stress How to prevent angina An improvement to lifestyle choices can be made to prevent angina. This includes quitting smoking, monitoring other health conditions such as hypertension and high levels of cholesterol. A healthy diet, which eradicates saturated fats is also recommended, as is regular physical activity. Stress levels should be reduced and a healthy weight maintained.  ...

Antiphospholipid syndrome

What is antiphospholipid syndrome? Antiphospholipid syndrome, also known as Hughes Syndrome, is an autoimmune disorder which can cause blood clots anywhere in the body. It involves the production of antibodies called antiphospholipids, which attack the proteins on the outside of your blood cells. As well as causing blood clots, antiphospholipid syndrome can result in complications during pregnancy. Prognosis of the condition The symptoms of antiphospholipid syndrome vary greatly from person to person. For some people, blood clots will be minor and limited to peripheral arteries, whereas blood clots in other people could result in a heart attack or stroke. Virtually any part of the body can be affected – so the condition can be extremely unpredictable. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (CAPS) involves blood clots in multiple organs occurring over a period of a few days to a few weeks. This can often be fatal, but CAPS affects less than 1% of people with antiphospholipid syndrome. What are the symptoms? In addition to blood clots, antiphospholipid syndrome can cause the following symptoms: livedo reticularis – a blotchy red or blue rash chronic headaches and migraines extreme tiredness pins and needles in your arms or legs swelling and redness in the veins in your legs pregnancy problems such as frequent miscarriages or premature birth due to high blood pressure How is it diagnosed? Initially the doctor will carry out a medical assessment, asking about your symptoms, any past blood clots, and any unexplained miscarriages or premature births. In most cases a diagnosis involves taking blood tests to detect antiphospholipids. You’ll need two blood tests, spaced at least 12 weeks apart, to rule out the possibility of a short-term development of antiphospholipids due to medication or infection. What causes antiphospholipid syndrome? The cause of antiphospholipid syndrome is unknown. Some people with antiphospholipid syndrome have a family member with the condition, but the majority do not. Antiphospholipid syndrome occurs in 1-5% of the healthy population, but is much more common in people with autoimmune disorders such as: systemic lupus erythematosus rheumatoid arthritis systemic sclerosis giant cell arteritis You can also get antiphospholipid antibodies if you’ve had an infection, sickle cell disease, or malignant lymphoma. The most common group of people to be affected are women of a childbearing age. How is it treated? Antiphospholipid syndrome is generally treated with medication to thin the blood and reduce the chances of blood clots. In the past warfarin was the only anticoagulant drug available, but a new class of drugs known as DOACs have become available in recent years, so your doctor will discuss the benefits and drawbacks of each option. You might also be prescribed an antiplatelet medication such as aspirin. These drugs will usually have to be taken daily for the rest of your life. During pregnancy you might additionally need to take heparin. Finally there are some things you can do to reduce your blood pressure and therefore your chances of blood clots, such as: exercising regularly maintaining a healthy weight eating a healthy balanced diet stopping smoking ...

Assessing lung function test

What is pulmonary function testing? Pulmonary function testing is performed to determine the type of disorder affecting the lungs. It is also used to determine the stage of any lung disease present. There are different methods used. What does it involve? The technique of spirometry is used to measure air flow in the lungs, obtaining flow rates and volumes. It involves the patient breathing into a device called a spirometer. Results vary slightly depending on whether the patient performs the test in a seated or standing position. Measurement of the total lung volume requires the use of an additional technique, one of the following: Plethysmography: This is the more precise technique. The patient sits inside an airtight transparent box similar in shape to a telephone booth. After inhaling and exhaling through a mouthpiece, the pressure changes occurring in the box are crucial in calculating the total lung volume. Breathing helium or nitrogen: The patient breathes the gas through a lung tube for a specific period of time. Then the concentration of the gas in the tube is measured and used to calculate the total lung volume. Why is it done? Pulmonary function testing is done: To diagnose pulmonary disease (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema). To determine the cause of breathing difficulties. To assess whether exposure to contaminants in the work environment has affected pulmonary function. To study a patient’s pulmonary function before surgery. To check the effect of a medication. To determine how well a treatment is working. Preparation You are advised to avoid eating large amounts of food before the tests. You must also avoid smoking in the 4-6 hours before the tests. The specialist will tell you if you have to stop using a bronchodilator or other inhaled medicine. Similarly, you may have to take an inhaled medicine just before or just after the pulmonary tests. What will I feel during the evaluation? During the testing, you may experience difficulty breathing or dizziness due to the rapid and forced breathing you are asked to do for correct performance of the test. You may also experience claustrophobia when you sit inside the box - this may be the most uncomfortable part of testing. Significance of abnormal results An abnormal result means that you may have a lung or chest disease. In emphysema, asthma, chronic bronchitis and infections, the lungs contain too much air and take longer to empty. This type of disease is called obstructive pulmonary disease. This type of testing can also reveal other types of lung disease. For example, diseases in which the lungs scar and become smaller, such that they cannot hold much air and cannot correctly perform their function of sending oxygen to the blood. If you have weak muscles, this will also be reflected in the results. Some of the diseases are: Extreme obesity Lung fibrosis Sarcoidosis and scleroderma ...

Autoimmune diseases

What are autoimmune diseases? Autoimmune diseases are a group of conditions where healthy cells in the body are mistakenly attacked by the immune system. There are more than 80 different types of autoimmune disease. This makes diagnosis difficult. The most common autoimmune diseases are: Inflammatory bowel disease, which includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. It is linked to a microbe that activates the body’s defence mechanism, causing inflammation. Type I diabetes: the defence mechanisms attack the cells in the pancreas that produce insulin (insulin enables the body to use the glucose it receives). This form of diabetes usually occurs during childhood or adolescence. Rheumatoid arthritis: a condition that affects the joints. Coeliac disease: affects the small intestine. The immune system of a person with coeliac disease reacts to gluten, which damages the lining of the intestine. Lupus: this can affect any organ, the most common being the skin and joints. Other, less frequent, diseases include some thyroid disorders, pernicious anaemia, Addison's disease and vitiligo. Prognosis of the disease Although autoimmune diseases can’t yet be cured, there are a number of treatments available which can help alleviate the symptoms. Having an autoimmune disease does not affect your life expectancy. Symptoms of autoimmune disease The main symptoms are usually inflammation (which can cause redness, heat, pain and swelling), fatigue, muscle aches and fever but these symptoms to not apply to all autoimmune diseases (particularly Type 1 diabetes). Symptoms also depend on the particular condition: Inflammatory bowel disease: abdominal pain and bloody diarrhoea are common. Type I diabetes: blurred vision, the need to urinate often, problems with concentration, and chronic thirst Rheumatoid arthritis: the main symptoms are mild joint pain, stiffness, and fatigue. The joints may be hot and painful. The areas most affected are the wrists, knees, fingers, and ankles. Coeliac disease: manifests as abdominal pain, diarrhoea, constipation, weight loss, and fatigue. Lupus: this may be difficult to diagnose since it manifests as outbreaks. Symptoms depend on each case, but the main symptoms are muscle and joint pain and hair loss. In addition, there is often atypical colouring on the face, especially on the nose and cheeks. Medical tests for autoimmune diseases The first step in detecting an autoimmune disease is to have a complete medical history taken, including family history, lifestyle, drugs prescribed, and symptoms. After this, depending on the autoimmune disease detected or suspected, some tests will be performed: Inflammatory bowel disease: may require blood and stool analysis, endoscopy, capsule endoscope, ultrasound and radiological tests. Type I diabetes: a glycosylated haemoglobin (A1c) test, a random blood sugar test or a fasting blood sugar test is usually done for diagnosis. Rheumatoid arthritis: a blood test and radiologic examination of the most affected skeletal segments most affected is performed. Coeliac disease: four tests are usually performed to diagnose this pathology: serology, genetic testing, duodenal biopsy and gluten-free diet. Lupus: diagnosis of lupus is often complicated. Diagnosis is based on the presence of several criteria that must occur at the same time, such as malar rash, arthritis, blood or neurological disorders, mouth sores and serositis, among others. What causes autoimmune diseases? The causes of autoimmune diseases are unknown, although they tend to be hereditary. In addition, some viruses, bacteria and drugs may cause certain alterations that trigger their appearance. African-American, Hispanic-American, and Native American women are most at risk. Can they be prevented? There is currently no known way to prevent autoimmune diseases. Treatments for autoimmune diseases There are different treatments depending on the disease to be treated. For example, the main treatment for type 1 diabetes is the daily administration of insulin. Patients with coeliac disease need to eliminate gluten from their diet. Patients with rheumatoid arthritis can take anti-inflammatory medication and steroid injections to manage pain. Which specialist treats autoimmune diseases? The specialist treating an autoimmune disease will depend on the type of disease. Some specialists include: Internal Physicians, Immunologists, Dermatologists and Rheumatologists. ...

Bronchial disease

What is bronchial disease? Bronchial disease, also known as bronchitis, is inflammation of the bronchi, which are the main airways of the lungs. It causes cough with mucous and breathing difficulties. Symptoms may also include panting, chest tightness or mild fever. There are two types: acute bronchitis and chronic bronchitis. Patients with bronchitis frequently produce cough with mucous. The mucous is produced by the inner layer of the bronchi and has a characteristically sticky quality. Acute bronchitis: may be caused by lung irritants or infections. The most common cause of acute bronchitis is the same viruses responsible for flu and colds. Acute bronchitis can be transmitted via physical contact, e.g. via dirty hands. Acute bronchitis lasts for up to 10 days; however, the cough may persist for many weeks after the infection has disappeared. Chronic bronchitis: this disease is classified within the disease category chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Inflamed bronchi produce large amounts of mucous, leading to breathing difficulties and a lot of coughing. One of the most common causes is smoking. Other possible causes are breathing air with high concentrations of pollutants, smoke or dust over an extended period of time. Prognosis Acute bronchitis: the disease usually disappears after 7-10 days; however, some symptoms, such as coughing, may persist for 2-3 weeks. If the symptoms have not subsided at the end of these periods, the specialist may consider the use of medications or antibiotics, given that bronchitis may develop into pneumonia. Chronic bronchitis: there is no known cure. Giving up smoking is a key preventive measure. In more-complicated cases, the specialist may decide that the patient requires oxygen therapy in their everyday life. Symptoms of bronchial disease Symptoms vary by the type of bronchitis, acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis: throat pain, exhaustion or fatigue, fever, pain all over the body, blocked and runny nose, vomiting, diarrhoea, cough, green or yellow mucus, wheezing, chest pain or tightness, and shortness of breath especially during physical activity. Chronic bronchitis: The cardinal symptom of chronic bronchitis is persistent coughing that does not disappear until many months have elapsed. The mucus is accompanied by cough, wheezing and difficulty obtaining air. Testing for bronchial disease The most common test is using a stethoscope to listen to the patient’s lungs while breathing. However, in the first few days, it is difficult to differentiate bronchitis from a common cold. Other tests may be performed for a more precise diagnosis: Chest X-ray: the X-ray can determine which specific disease the patient has, pneumonia or another disease associated with coughing. Sputum culture: this test can detect the presence of bacteria in the sputum. This test is able to detect diseases that can be treated with antibiotics. Pulmonary function testing: the patient blows into a device called a spirometer, which measures how much air their lungs can hold and how fast they can obtain oxygen. This test can detect signs of emphysema or asthma. Causes of bronchial disease Causes vary by the type of bronchitis, acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis: one of the causes of acute bronchitis is infections and lung irritants; in other words, the viruses that cause colds and the flu constitute one of the most common causes of acute bronchitis. There is another type of substance that can cause lung irritation culminating in acute bronchitis. Exposure to high concentrations of dust or gases, for example after an explosion or large fire, may lead to the development of acute bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis: The fundamental cause of chronic bronchitis is smoking. The action of inhaling smoke irritates the lungs and leads to the production of large amounts of mucous. Chronic bronchitis may also occur after breathing in other substances such as chemical vapours and dust. Can it be prevented? The best way to prevent bronchitis is to not smoke, whether this means stopping smoking or never starting to smoke. The more smoke is inhaled, the more diseased the lungs will become. Stopping smoking improves breathing and reduces coughing. It also lowers the risk of lung cancer. Another measure is to avoid exposure to other substances that may be harmful, such as aerosol-based products like hairspray, spray deodorant and spray paint. Similarly, you should avoid inhaling dust or chemical vapours. One way of protecting the lungs is to use a facemask covering the mouth and nose when you use any chemical substance that gives off strong vapours, e.g. varnish or paint. Treatment The primary objectives of specialists are to provide symptom relief and to make breathing easier. If you have acute bronchitis, the physician may advise you to rest, to hydrate sufficiently and to take aspirin or acetaminophen to reduce the fever. Viruses are the predominant cause of acute bronchitis and as such antibiotics are useless. You may be prescribed antibiotics however if the specialist believes that you have a bacterial infection. Use of a humidifier will make the mucous more liquid and may alleviate wheezing and lack of air. Some patients may need an inhaled medicine, which is administered via an inhaler so that the medicine can reach the lungs. Which specialist treats it? Bronchial disease is treated by a specialist in pneumology, which is the study and treatment of diseases of the lungs, bronchi and pleura. Pulmonologists and respiratory sepcialists can treat bronchitis, respiratory impairment, asthma, emphysema, and more serious diseases. ...

Cancer screening

What is cancer screening? Cancer screening aims to detect cancers in their early stages and is carried out on people presumed to have no symptoms at all. Early detection improves the chances of treatment being successful and the chances of survival are better too. Some screening tests can prevent cancer from developing entirely (e.g. cervical screening). What does cancer screening involve? In the UK there are three national screenings available – for breast, bowel and cervical cancer. Breast cancer screening uses a mammography to assess the breasts and to detect any abnormalities. Mammographies are able to detect small lumps that cannot be felt physically. The national breast screening programme is offered to women between 50-70 years of age every three years. If you are younger than 50 mammograms are not very reliable in detecting breast cancers, so if you arrange to have a screening, it is more likely that you will have an ultrasound instead. Bowel cancer screening is offered to men and women in the UK between the ages of 60 and 74 years. This age group are sent a testing kit every two years. The kit is designed so that a stool sample can be easily taken and sent for examination. In addition, at age 55 you are invited for a bowel scope test as well. Cervical cancer screening detects abnormal cell changes in the cervix which if left untreated can develop into cancer. A screening kit is used which takes a sample of cells from the cervix with a special brush. The sample is then sent to a laboratory to check for abnormalities and also HPV. Cervical screening is offered to women between the ages of 25 and 64 years. Women aged 25 to 49 years are screened every three years. From age 50, women are screened every five years. If you have a strong family history of certain cancers, it is likely that your doctor will recommend you have several additional tests. Why is cancer screening done? Cancer screening can detect cancer or pre-cancerous abnormalities early on, allowing more successful treatment and survival rates. As a result, cancer screening saves thousands of lives every year. If you are not eligible for screening, but you notice changes that are out of the ordinary, make an appointment with a doctor who can examine these changes and advise any necessary tests. ...

Cardio check up

What is a cardio check-up? A cardio check-up, or cardiac screening, is designed to assess the health of the cardiovascular system, before symptoms of cardiovascular disease present. By screening for early indications, disease can be prevented or treated. What does a cardio check-up involve? The most common tests carried out in a cardio check-up include: Cholesterol test – high levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) can lead to a build-up of cholesterol in the arteries, leading to coronary artery disease. Blood test – to check for blood glucose levels, and certain proteins which can indicate inflammation in the body. Blood pressure test – both at rest, and when the heart is beating harder. If the above tests are indicative of risk factors, further tests may be carried out, including: Coronary CT angiography – a CT scanner and contrast material create images of the coronary arteries to assess for any plaque or blockages. Electrocardiography (ECG) – this measures heart activity, including heart rate and rhythm. Cardiac stress test – whilst walking on a treadmill or exercise bike, your heart rate, rhythm and blood pressure are measured as intensity is increased. This determines whether the heart is receiving enough blood when stressed. Coronary catheter angiography – pictures of the blood flowing through the coronary arteries are taken to detect narrowing or blockages. Why is a cardio check-up done? A cardio check-up can assess the health of the heart of someone who isn’t experiencing any symptoms. This way, signs of coronary disease can be detected early and reduce the chances of a sudden cardiac event. Early detection can allow for treatment and lifestyle changes to be made. The following risk factors also increase the risk of people developing cardiac problems. These risk factors include: A family history of heart disease High blood pressure High blood cholesterol Obesity Diabetes Sedentary lifestyle Smoking Excessive alcohol consumption Older age What do abnormal results mean? If coronary artery disease is detected, there are numerous measures that can be taken to reduce the risk of heart attack. These include lifestyle measures (exercise, smoking cessation and a healthy diet), and medications to lower cholesterol and blood pressure. ...

Cardiovascular disease

What is cardiovascular disease? Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a group of disorders that affect the heart and the blood vessels. It is associated with the build-up of fatty deposits in the arteries, which is known as atherosclerosis. It often involves hypertension, which can be both a cause and result of CVD. The disorder is one of the main causes of death in the UK yet can often be prevented with a healthy lifestyle.   What are the different types of cardiovascular diseases? The four main types of cardiovascular disease are: Coronary heart disease – occurs when the flow of blood to the heart is blocked. It can lead to angina, heart attacks or heart failure. Strokes and TIAs – the blood supply of the brain is cut off during a stroke. A transient ischaemic attack is similar but the blood flow to the brain is only temporary. Peripheral arterial disease – occurs when there is a blockage in the arteries to the limbs, such as the legs. Aortic diseases – these are a group of conditions affecting the aorta, the largest blood vessel in the body that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body. The commonest type is an aortic aneurysm.   What are the causes of cardiovascular disease? There are many things are risk factors and increase the chance of a person developing CVD. These include: Hypertension – if the blood pressure is too high it can damage the blood vessels Smoking – the harmful tobacco substances can narrow the blood vessels. High cholesterol – the fatty substance in the blood can increase the chance of developing a blood clot. Diabetes – high blood sugar levels can damage the blood vessels. Lack of regular exercise – staying active helps promote good heart health. Obesity – being overweight or obese increases the chance of developing diabetes and hypertension, which are both risk factors for CVD. Family history – having a family history of the disease means that the risk of developing CVD is increased.   Other risk factors for cardiovascular disease The other factors that can affect the development of CVD are: Age Gender Poor diet Alcohol   How to prevent cardiovascular disease Living a healthy lifestyle can prevent and lower the risk of cardiovascular disease. This means: Stop smoking Eating a balanced diet Exercising regularly Reaching and maintaining a healthy weight Reducing alcohol intake Medication ...

Cholesterol

What is cholesterol? Cholesterol is a fatty substance known as a lipid, which is mainly made by the liver and can also be found in some foods. It is vital for the human body to function properly but if the levels of cholesterol are too high in the blood, it can result in heart disease and heart stroke among other problems. Cholesterol can increase with age and is only detected through a blood test. There is also something else that may need to be monitored if someone has high cholesterol, and that is triglycerides. Having a high level of triglycerides, a type of fat (lipid) in the blood, can also increase the risk of heart disease. Why is it important to lower cholesterol? Evidence shows that high cholesterol levels can increase the risk of having a heart attack, a stroke, a mini-stroke (known as transient ischaemic attack) or a peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Cholesterol can build up in the artery wall, which restricts the blood flow to the heart, brain and the rest of the body. It can also increase the risk of a blood clot in other parts of the body. The risk of developing coronary heart disease is also higher when the blood’s cholesterol level increases. What causes high cholesterol? There are many factors that increase the chances of having high cholesterol, which include: An unhealthy diet – especially eating high levels of saturated fat. Smoking Diabetes Hypertension (high blood pressure). A family history of stroke or heart disease. Even people who eat healthily can inherit a condition called familial hypercholesterolemia, which can cause high cholesterol. What should my cholesterol levels be? The levels of blood cholesterol is measured in millimoles per litre of blood (mmol/L.) Total cholesterol levels should be 5mmol/L or less for healthy adults or 4mmol/L or less for those who are at high risk. Low-density lipoprotein (LPL) levels should at 3mmol/L or less for healthy adults or 2mmol/L or less for those at high risk. How to lower cholesterol levels? To reduce the level of cholesterol, it is recommended to maintain a healthy and balanced diet, which is low in fatty foods. Regular exercise and quitting smoking are also recommended to lower the levels of cholesterol. If following these steps does not reduce the cholesterol levels, a doctor may prescribe medication such as Statins to help. Statins block the chemicals in the liver that help to make cholesterol, which leads to a reduction the blood cholesterol level. They are only prescribed to people who are at a high risk of heart disease and will need to be taken for life. Low cholesterol diet A balanced diet, low in saturated fats can reduce LDL (bad cholesterol). The following foods should be avoided or the intake reduced: Fatty meats and meat products Butter and lard Cream, sour cream and ice cream Cheese Cake and biscuits Chocolate Coconut oil  ...

Chronic bronchitis

What is chronic bronchitis?    When the bronchial tubes, the breathing arteries that supply oxygen to the lungs, are inflamed, it causes bronchitis. This disease causes a phlegmy cough as well as making breathing difficult. Other symptoms include wheezing, chest tightness, and a slightly raised temperature. There are two types of bronchitis, chronic and acute.    Chronic bronchitis is classed under the umbrella term COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease). When the bronchi are inflamed more mucus is produced, this is what leads to breathing difficulties and a cough. Smoking is one of the most common causes, as well as breathing in polluted air, smoke, and dust for a prolonged time.        What are the symptoms? The main symptom of chronic bronchitis is a cough that lasts a long time and doesn’t go away for several months. The cough is quite often a chesty cough, which is associated with wheezing and trouble breathing.     What causes it? Cigarette smoke is the main cause of chronic bronchitis. Inhaling smoke irritates the lungs and can cause large amounts of mucus. Chronic bronchitis can also affect people who have been exposed to chemical vapours, dust, and other airborne substances.   How can it be prevented? The best way to prevent chronic bronchitis is to never smoke or to quit smoking. The more smoke you inhale, the worse it is for your lungs. When you quit smoking, breathing will improve, as well as your cough, your lungs will begin to function better, and the chances of getting lung cancer are reduced.   Another thing that can be done is to avoid other substances that could be harmful to your health such as lacquer aerosols, spray deodorants, or spray paints. It is also advisable to avoid inhaling dust or chemical vapours. Another way to take care of your lungs is to use a mask that covers your mouth and nose when using products such as varnish, paint, or any other chemical substance with strong vapours. What is the treatment? As the name suggests, chronic bronchitis never completely disappears and it often intermittently returns for long periods of time. Treatment for chronic bronchitis can help relieve the symptoms but it does not cure them. The medications can help clear the airways and get rid of mucous. Oxygen therapy is also recommended in some cases, this kind of pulmonary rehabilitation can relieve symptoms and ensure a better quality of life.    ...

Chronic diarrhoea

What is chronic diarrhoea?   The term chronic diarrhoea is used for cases in which diarrhoea has lasted for several weeks and is quite often linked to other health issues such as weight loss, abdominal pain, vomiting, nausea, high temperature or fever, or being unable to absorb nutrients.        Diarrhoea is the frequent passage of soft and watery stools. It is thought to be frequent if a person has bowel movements more than three times a day.      Diarrhoea can be a relatively common issue that normally lasts a few days before going away on its own. When it lasts longer, it may be due to a more serious issue. In cases of chronic diarrhoea, symptoms can come and go.     Disease prognosis Diarrhoea continues to be one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality in underdeveloped countries, affecting up to 5% of the world’s population. Risk factors include malnutrition and lack of breast milk, among many others. It is worth noting that the prevalence of chronic diarrhoea is much lower in the western world, and deaths that arise from it tend to be isolated cases derived from untreatable congenital diarrhoea. What are the symptoms? The main symptom of chronic diarrhoea is an increase in needing the toilet, and a gradual decrease in stool consistency. Abdominal pain, commonly known as cramps. Nausea or vomiting. High temperature or fever. In cases of abundant diarrhoea, the person may become dehydrated due to the loss of fluids.   Dehydration can be recognised by the following symptoms: extreme tiredness, thirst, dry tongue, muscle cramps, dizziness, and unconcentrated urine among others. What are the tests for it? The patient's medical history is important for the initial diagnosis and choice of tests.   Anamnesis: a medical history of foods that have previously lead to diarrhoea. The faeces are analysed which can quite often indicate a cause.    Physical examination: signs of malabsorption and malnutrition are looked for: weight, size, body mass index, muscle mass, and many more. It is useful to note the changes from the onset of diarrhoea. During the examination, things such as hydration levels and changes in skin tone will be taken into account.     Additional tests: these tests vary depending on the patients’ age and diagnosis. The more basic tests will be done first to diagnose more frequent causes. Causes of diarrhoea    There are many things that could cause diarrhoea, the most common are:   Bacterial contamination of food or water. Viral cause: flu, norovirus, or rotavirus. Rotavirus is the most common cause for diarrhoea in children. Parasites in food or water. Some medications such as; antibiotics, antacids with magnesium, or cancer treatments. Some foods or ingredients can cause an intolerance and / or sensitivity such as lactose. Some stomach, small intestine, or colon diseases can cause diarrhoea. Some colon function issues. How can it be prevented? To avoid viral diarrhoea, it is important to maintain good hygiene such as washing your hands with soap and water before and after meals.    To avoid bacterial or parasitic diarrhoea, it is important to have good food hygiene and to drink clean or bottled water. It is also important to have good hand hygiene as with viral diarrhoea.   In cases of diarrhoea after eating, it can sometimes be due an intolerance, which is quite difficult to prevent when unknown. Another type is travellers’ diarrhoea, the recommendation for avoiding this is to avoid undercooked or raw food as well as cold drinks with ice. It is advisable not to drink tap water and to eat foods which have been thoroughly cooked. Treatment for diarrhoea          Treatment will depend on the cause and the severity. One of the most important things to do is to compensate for the loss of liquids and minerals. The easiest way to do this is is to increase the amount of liquid ingested with mineral water, herbal teas, or drinks that have sodium, chloride, or potassium. If the diarrhoea is intense, increasing the water ingested should help alleviate the problem. If it’s not possible to keep liquids down for very long, it’s recommended that you go to the doctor to get electrolytes and water replenished intravenously.   What specialist should I see? As it is a relatively common symptom, there are many specialists who could treat and solve chronic diarrhoea problems. Specialists include; gastroenterologists, internal medicine, and family medicine specialists, occasionally surgeons can help treat diarrhoea or chronic diarrhoea. ...

Clinical testing

What is lab testing? Lab testing, or blood work, tests our blood to give us insight into what is in our blood and can indicate our overall health. What does lab testing involve? Blood has to be drawn which is commonly taken from the inside of the elbow using a fine needle and syringe. The blood sample is then placed in a centrifuge in a laboratory and spun until the blood separates. Why is lab testing done? Lab testing can be done to test for the following: Cardiovascular tests (e.g. testing for cholesterol and lipids) Liver function tests Kidney function tests Thyroid tests Reproductive function tests Vitamin tests Carbohydrate tolerance test White blood cell test Red blood cell test Having your blood work done annually with a physician can help to catch any illnesses or conditions early, to aid successful treatment. What does it feel like to have your blood taken? Usually your blood will be taken from the inside of your arm. A tourniquet is used on the upper arm to slow down the blood flow and to allow the vein to swell. The skin is cleaned and the needle is injected into the vein. A syringe draws out the blood and once taken pressure is applied to the area. A small plaster can be used to cover the wound. Having your blood taken is not painful, but some people find it uncomfortable. What do abnormal results mean? Once the blood sample has been analysed in a lab the results can sometimes be viewed online, or they will be posted to you or your physician. Most results will require interpretation by a medical professional and should be shared with your doctor. If any abnormalities are indicated, further tests may be required, including more blood tests, but also scans or biopsies. ...

Diabetes

What is diabetes? Diabetes mellitus (DM), or just diabetes refers to a group of metabolic diseases which result in an inability to regulate blood sugar levels. Having too much glucose in your blood can damage the kidneys, eyes, nerves and other parts of the body, including the blood vessels themselves. In extreme cases, diabetes can cause heart disease and strokes, and patients may even require amputation of limbs. This inability to control blood sugar comes from a problem with the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced by the pancreas, enters the bloodstream, and moves glucose out of the blood and into cells, where it is used to generate energy. There are two types of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes – the cells that create insulin are attacked and destroyed by the body’s immune system as part of a defective immune response. It can develop rapidly over weeks or even days. Type 2 diabetes – either the body does not produce enough insulin, or the body’s cells stop responding to it. Patients may not be diagnosed for years, due to generic symptoms. It is by far the most common type of diabetes.   What are the symptoms? Classic diabetes symptoms include: Thirst Frequent urination Fatigue Itching around the genitals, or thrush Weight loss/muscle loss Blurred vision Slow healing   What causes diabetes? Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition – something causes the immune system to attack healthy pancreatic cells that produce insulin. It appears to run in families, so may be genetic. No one knows exactly what causes the immune system to attack the pancreas, but one theory is that it is triggered by a virus. Type 2 diabetes is acquired, and usually affects older people. It tends to be associated with obesity and lack of exercise.   How can it be prevented? Type 1 diabetes appears to be genetic, so there is no way to prevent it. To reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, it is important to have a healthy and balanced diet, take plenty of exercise, and lose weight if you are overweight or obese. Stopping smoking and drinking alcohol in moderation are also useful tips.   What is the treatment? Diabetes can’t be cured, but the symptoms can be managed. A healthy diet, regular exercise, and regular blood tests are essential to keep blood glucose levels in check. Type 1 diabetes patients require regular insulin injections for the rest of their lives to make up for the lack of insulin production by the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes patients may eventually need to take tablets, as the condition is progressive (it will worsen over time). You should see your doctor or a specialist as soon as possible if you are experiencing symptoms. If diagnosed with diabetes, a patient is usually referred to a specialist care team for treatment and long-term monitoring of the condition. ...

Diabetic nephropathy

What is diabetic nephropathy?        When diabetic patients have an issue with managing their blood sugar, one of the problems they may have is diabetic nephropathy. Around 30% of patients on regular dialysis have already been diagnosed with diabetes. Diabetic nephropathy is the main reason behind kidney transplant in the western world. The disease affects the way that the kidneys are able to eliminate waste and excess fluid from the body. Disease prognosis Diabetic nephropathy is one of the leading causes of end stage renal failure. Early diagnosis, when the disease is in its early stages, is crucial to be able to start treatment and avoid kidney damage. When kidney damage worsens, there is more protein in the urine. If the damage continues to worsen, the patient may need dialysis or a kidney transplant. People with diabetic nephropathy will often also have high blood pressure, heart disease, and eye damage.         What are the symptoms?      In many cases, symptoms are not noticed at the beginning of the disease, but they worsen with disease progression. The kidney damage may have already started 5 to 10 years before the first symptoms appear. Some people affected may have a loss of appetite, feel tired most of the time, and experience general malaise. Other common symptoms include a headache, nausea, vomiting, swollen legs, altered blood pressure, protein in the urine, an increased need to urinate, needing less insulin, confusion or difficulty concentrating, or fatigue. Regularly having blood and urine tests done can help diagnose diabetic nephropathy sooner.      Medical tests There are different tests to diagnose diabetic nephropathy at an early stage. It is recommended that the patient have a urine test once a year to check for albumin in the urine. When there is excess protein in the urine it can be an indication of kidney damage.  High blood pressure should be monitored in patients with diabetic nephropathy. It can develop quickly and/or become difficult to control. The specialist will also check the kidneys yearly via blood tests, or other types of tests, to check for: Protein in the urine for 24 hours Blood levels of phosphorus, calcium, bicarbonate, PTH, and potassium Haemoglobin Haematocrit Protein electrophoresis in urine. A kidney biopsy can also confirm the diagnosis, but it is only carried out if there are any doubts. What causes it? There are different factors that could cause this kidney disease to develop:  Evolution time of diabetes. Roughly around 20 years from the onset of diabetes, 50% of patients may develop diabetic nephropathy. High blood pressure. This is the most serious risk factor for diabetic patients for developing diabetic nephropathy. Glycosylated haemoglobin. There is a link between controlling blood sugar levels and the percentage of glycated haemoglobin and microvascular lesions. Controlling blood sugar levels slows the development of glomerulosclerosis.   Hyperlipoproteinemia. Obesity.   Other risk factors include; not controlling blood sugar levels, family members who have diabetes, kidney issues, or smoking. What is the treatment?    Personalised and appropriate treatment plans can delay damage, providing it is caught in time. When there is more protein in the urine, the kidney damage is slowly getting worse. If this begins to happen, there are three things that specialists recommend:    Monitor blood pressure. Controlling blood pressure to be below 140/90 mm/Hg is a good way to delay kidney damage. In order to achieve this, your doctor may prescribe medications to lower your blood pressure and protect the kidneys from further damage. These medications can delay kidney damage, even if blood pressure is at a healthy rate.  Monitor blood sugar levels. Following a healthy diet, exercising regularly, taking the needed medications or insulin as supervised by a specialist, and monitoring blood sugar levels can delay the onset of kidney damage.      Other ways to protect the kidneys. Avoid taking painkillers such as ibuprofen or naproxen as they are known to affect kidney function. Your specialist will recommend what pain relief medication is best for you. It is important to be aware of urinary tract infection symptoms and getting the right treatment as soon as possible. Low levels of vitamin D have been known to affect kidney diseases. Your specialist can recommend and prescribe vitamin D supplements if necessary.      Which specialist should I see? A nephrologist studies the kidneys and treats the diseases and conditions affecting them. ...

Digestive diseases

What are digestive diseases? The digestive system is a tube made up of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine, which leads to the back passage. It also contains organs such as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Each part of this system has a different purpose, such as breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, or removing toxins or alcohol. A digestive disease, or disorder, involves something going wrong with one of the organs in this system. Digestive diseases can include: Problems with the oesophagus – including acid reflux, achalasia, Problems with the stomach – including gastro paresis, stomach ulcers, and stomach cancer Problems with the gallbladder – including gallstones. and acute cholecystitis Problems with the pancreas – including pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer Problems with the liver – including liver cysts and liver cancer Problems with the intestines – including coeliac disease, dysentery, Hirschsprung's disease, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and ulcerative colitis, diverticulitis, colon cancer, and polyps Problems with the rectum – including, anal fissure, anal fistula, and haemorrhoids Problems with the system as a whole – including Crohn’s disease Issues generally related to dietary problems – including constipation, indigestion, flatulence, food intolerances, and lactose intolerance. What are the symptoms of a digestive disease? Symptoms of a digestive disease can include: bloating constipation diarrhoea stomach pain weight gain or loss heartburn incontinence nausea or vomiting What type of specialist treats digestive diseases? A gastroenterologist is a type of consultant who specialises in diseases in the digestive system. Depending on your condition, however, they may not be able to make a diagnosis on their own, and may refer you to other specialists, such as radiologists, to conduct further tests. ...

Eating disorders

What are eating disorders? An eating disorder is when someone has a very unhealthy attitude to food, body weight or shape. Eating disorders are serious illnesses that can prove fatal if not treated. The most common types of eating disorders are: Anorexia nervosa: when an individual tries to keep their body weight as low as possible by not eating enough or exercising excessively, or both. Bulimia: characterised by periods of binging and then purging by either use of laxatives or by being deliberately sick. Binge eating disorder (BED: loss of control over eating, consuming large portions all at once until you feel ill and consumed by feelings of guilt. Women are more likely to suffer from these types of disorders. They tend to occur in adolescence and are often accompanied by depression and anxiety disorders. What symptoms do they present? The common symptoms of eating disorders are: Excessive exercise Worrying a lot about your weight and body shape Eating very little Inducing vomiting after eating Taking laxatives Depression Mood swings Having strict routines around food Avoiding social settings that could involve food Additional physical signs include: A weight that is very low Amenorrhoea (absence of menstruation) Digestion problems Fatigue Feeling cold and dizzy What causes eating disorders? The exact causes of eating disorders are not known, however, some risk factors include: Having a family history of depression, substance abuse and eating disorders. You have been criticised in the past for your weight or body shape. You are overly concerned about your weight, for example, because of the nature of your work (e.g. being a model). You suffer from anxiety and have low self-esteem. You have been sexually abused. Can eating disorders be prevented? Prevention of eating disorders refers to any programs or interventions that reduce the risk factors of developing such a disorder. This includes primary and secondary prevention. Primary prevention aims to prevent the onset of an eating disorder, whilst secondary prevention tries to reduce the severity and duration of an eating disorder in someone who has already been diagnosed. What is the treatment for eating disorders? Treatment may differ slightly between each case and each type of eating disorder. Recovering from an eating disorder is entirely possible, but recovery can take a while and it will be a different experience for each person. Physically, treatment will aim to increase your nutritional intake, stop purging and reduce excessive exercise. Together, these will allow the individual to reach a healthier weight. Further to this, treatment will involve individual, group and family psychotherapy sessions (e.g. CBT), nutritional counselling, medical monitoring and medication. Medications that may be given include anti-depressants, but medication must not be the only form of treatment for eating disorders, and may not be given to patients under the age of 18. ...

Fatty liver

What is fatty liver? Fatty liver disease is the accumulation of fatty acids and triglycerides in liver cells. There are two types: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: it is the most common cause for obesity due to a build-up of fat in the liver cells. There are other factors that can also trigger the disease, such as oxidative stress, the production and release of toxic inflammatory proteins, or necrosis or death of liver cells. Alcohol-related liver disease, also known as alcohol hepatic steatosis: as the name suggests, this disease is caused by excess alcohol intake. The liver breaks down most of the alcohol but during the process, harmful substances to the liver are released that cause inflammation and weaken the body’s natural defences.     What are the symptoms?  Symptoms of this disease include upper right abdominal pain, general malaise, and chronic fatigue, among others. However, many patients don’t have symptoms but are diagnosed after having certain imaging tests such as an ultrasound or CT scan for other reasons.   These imaging tests are not always able to diagnose this disease, for this it’s best to undergo laboratory testing to be able to assess the degree of liver injury by assessing liver enzymes or transaminases.       Causes of fatty liver?   Specialists are still unsure as to why some people accumulate fat in the liver and others don’t.  An important factor is that some cases of fatty liver develop swelling which could turn into cirrhosis. There are however some common factors for both types of fatty liver: being overweight or obese, insulin resistance, when cells don’t process sugar in response to the hormone insulin, and high blood sugar levels (hyperglycaemia) which can indicate prediabetes or type 2 diabetes and / or high levels of blood fats, particularly triglycerides.   How can it be prevented? In most cases, fatty liver can be prevented if certain lifestyle changes are made, such as following healthy guidelines based on a varied, balanced, and low fat diet. Since alcohol is one of the things that damages the liver, it is very important to stop consuming alcohol.     Another important factor is to exercise regularly as that helps burn fat; exercises can be aerobic, such as running or walking.         What is the treatment?            There is no specific treatment for this disease, however it has been shown that weight loss, regular exercise, and following a balanced diet can help reduce fat in the liver. Controlling cholesterol levels, diabetes, and / or any other cause for a build-up of fat in the liver is also important. In cases of morbid obesity, bariatric surgery may be recommended.         ...

Fever of unknown origin

What is fever of unknown origin (FUO)? A fever of unknown origin (FUO) is a fever of at least 38.3°C, which lasts for more than three weeks or occurs often without explanation.   What are the different types of fever of unknown origin? There are four classifications of fever of unknown origin: 1. Classic FUO – this is an unexplained fever that lasts for three weeks. Infections or neoplasms such as leukaemia may be the cause. Other disorders that can affect connective tissue may also be the cause. 2. Nosocomial – people usually get a fever due as a result of hospitalisation after being admitted for something other than fever and then being to run to the unexplained fever. The common causes include pulmonary embolism, sinusitis, deep vein thrombosis and septic thrombophlebitis (an inflammation that affects the veins). 3. Immune-deficient – this occurs in people with compromised immune systems and means that they are at increased risk of infection. A compromised immune system usually occurs following chemotherapy treatment. 4. HIV – the disease itself can cause fevers and also makes people more likely to catch infections that can cause fevers.   What are the symptoms? Typical symptoms of fever of unknown origin include: A temperature over 38.3°C in adults or 37.5°C in children Sweating Chills Headaches Body or joint aches Fatigue Rash Cough and sore throat   How is FUO diagnosed? A fever has to last long enough to be classified as FUO. Firstly, the doctor will ask the patient if they have been out of the country, had any environmental exposures or changed their daily environment. They will also ask about the patient’s family history of illnesses such as lymphoma. Blood work and physical examinations are carried out as blood tests can check for certain conditions, whilst the skin is examined for signs of rash or jaundice. Blood, urine and sputum cultures are checked for causes such as bacteria and fungi. If the doctor hears a murmur or suspects endocarditis, then an imaging test may be required to evaluate the heart. Chest X-rays may be required to check the lungs.   Treatment of FUO The treatment of fever of unknown origin depends on the cause. In cases where there is no trace of an underlying cause, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and antihistamines may be used as these medications help to reduce the fever. People whose fevers originate from immune-deficiency may be treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics. Infections are responsible for between 20-40 per cent of FUO. Those with HIV-associated fevers and treated with antiviral drugs. ...

Fibromyalgia

Fibromyalgia is a chronic disease that causes pain throughout the body and tenderness in joints, muscles, tendons and other soft tissues. The origin of this disease is unknown, but it may be triggered by several factors including physical or emotional trauma, bacterial or viral infection or a concurrent disease such as rheumatoid arthritis. As in polimiosiotis or idiopathic inflammatory myopathy, fibromyalgia generates fatigue and muscle pain throughout the body, in addition to sleep disorder and depression in general. The treatment of this disease is intended to relieve pain and combat the sleep disorder with medication and relaxation techniques. Moderate physical exercise is also recommended, to keep muscles active, while for depression it is advisable to follow a psychological treatment. ...

Flu vaccine

What is the flu vaccine? The flu vaccine stimulates the body to produce antibodies that will protect against infection by the flu (short for “influenza”) virus. Flu is a respiratory infection caused by different viruses. The majority of the population overcomes flu without the need for treatment, and symptoms generally clear by themselves in around a week, but sometimes complications develop. Flu may cause serious symptoms, and may possibly be fatal. The flu vaccine is a good way of minimising your own risk and the possibility of infecting other people. The specialist can tell you about the different types of vaccine available; for example, there are vaccines specifically developed for people aged over 65 years. Why is it done? The main reason for flu vaccination is to protect against possible flu-related complications. There are however other reasons too. It is important that people with kidney disease, diabetes, HIV infection, heart problems or asthma are vaccinated, because flu in these populations is more likely to lead to more-serious complications such as pneumonia. Other groups, such as children and adolescents, may develop a serious disease called Reye syndrome if they are taking aspirin regularly. Finally, by being vaccinated, you will protect those closest to you who might develop a serious infection, such as babies, people with serious disease and the elderly. The phenomenon whereby vaccinated people protect vulnerable people around them is called herd immunity. Who should be vaccinated? The NHS routinely provides the flu vaccine to: Those over the age of 65 Those with certain medical conditions Children aged 2 & 3 Children in reception and years 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 at school Pregnant women Who shouldn’t be vaccinated? Those who have an egg allergy, as some vaccines are made using eggs – although egg-free vaccines are now available. Speak to your doctor if you are unsure. If you have ever had a serious allergic reaction to a flu vaccine in the past, you should also speak to your doctor before receiving the vaccine. What does it involve? Flu vaccines stimulate the body to produce antibodies two weeks after vaccination. Antibodies provide effective protection against infection by the viruses included in the vaccine. This vaccine protects against seasonal flu; specifically, it provides protection against three types of virus: Flu virus type A (H1N1) Flu virus type A (H3N2) Flu virus type B There is another type of flu vaccine that protects against four types of virus, the three mentioned above and: Variant of flu virus type B Are there any side effects? There are very rarely serious side effects from the vaccine. As the vaccine contains a small amount of the flu virus itself, you may experience mild flu symptoms such as aches and pains, and mild fever. The flu vaccine is normally administered as a nasal spray in young children, and side effects of this may include a runny or blocked nose, a lack of appetite, and a headache. The flu vaccine, however, has been demonstrated to be safe and has a good safety record. ...

Gastric reflux

Gastroesophageal reflux is a digestive disorder where acid from the stomach leaks back into the oesophagus. It usually occurs because of weakness in the lower oesophageal sphincter, the ring of muscle between the oesophagus and stomach. It also occurs regularly in healthy people, where it manifests as heartburn or acid indigestion but these are usually short, sporadic episodes compared to long-term gastroesophageal reflux disease. ...

Heart failure

What is heart failure? Heart failure is serious and results from various heart conditions. Heart failure is characterised by the heart’s inability to pump blood as well as it should be able to. Therefore, blood supply to the rest of the body is inadequate, ultimately resulting in the disruption of major bodily functions. Additionally, blood cannot carry enough oxygen or nutrients to the body and as a result, waste is not properly disposed of and fluid accumulates in some parts of the body. There are two types of heart failure: systolic, when myocardium cannot pump blood and expel it from the heart; and the diastolic, when the muscles of the heart are rigid and do not fill with blood. What are the symptoms of heart failure? The symptoms of heart failure vary according to each person. In the initial phase there are usually no symptoms, but if it progresses, the symptoms may worsen. The main symptoms include: Palpitations Dizziness Coughing and wheezing Weight gain Swelling in the ankles Abdominal swelling Loss of appetite What causes heart failure? The most common causes of heart failure are coronary heart disease, such as angina pectoris or myocardial infarction. High blood pressure is also another common cause of this disease, as well as excessive alcohol consumption. The following can also result in heart failure: Inherited cardiac conditions Congenital heart defects Arrhythmias Thyroid problems Drug use Diabetes Can heart failure be prevented? Heart failure can be prevented by making serious lifestyle changes that will reduce cardiovascular risk factors. These changes include: Smoking cessation Eating foods low in fat and cholesterol Maintaining a healthy weight Doing regular exercise Getting enough sleep and rest Reducing your salt intake What is the treatment? There is no certain cure for heart failure, and treatment will depend on the severity of your condition. Treatment will aim to increase your lifespan and may include taking medication to reduce clotting, reduce cholesterol levels, improve heart function or to reduce sodium levels in the blood. Surgery may also be needed, such as coronary bypass surgery. It may also be necessary to have a pacemaker or ICD fitted to control heart rhythm. The last stage for treating heart failure would be a heart transplant, but this is only done if all other treatments have failed and there is a viable heart from a donor. A large part of treatment is preventative, by adopting healthy lifestyle changes. ...

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy

What is hyperbaric oxygen therapy? Hyperbaric oxygen therapy involves the delivery of oxygen at a higher pressure than normal to increase the amount of oxygen in the blood. Why is it done? In the UK hyperbaric oxygen therapy is mainly used as a treatment in emergency situations such as: Decompression sickness – a condition caused by returning to normal air pressure levels after diving or tunnelling, where gas bubbles form within tissues. This can cause mild symptoms such as pain or tiredness, or serious problems such as organ failure and neurological damage. Gas embolism – a condition where gas bubbles enter the circulatory system during certain kinds of medical procedures Carbon monoxide poisoning In addition, a number of clinics in the UK have established hyperbaric chambers to treat a wide range of chronic conditions or injuries. The theory is that increased oxygen levels in the blood helps the body to heal itself more quickly. However, evidence on the effectiveness of hyperbaric oxygen therapy varies : there is some evidence that it can help to heal wounds such as diabetic foot ulcers, or inflammation of the colon caused by radiation therapy the evidence is weak or poor for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for brain injury, concussion, autism, trigeminal neuralgia, or fractures there is strong evidence that hyperbaric oxygen therapy for multiple sclerosis is not effective Finally, hyperbaric oxygen therapy should be avoided if you have a collapsed lung. What does it involve? Hyperbaric oxygen therapy is an outpatient procedure so you don’t need to stay in hospital overnight. Treatment generally lasts between one and two hours. Some hyperbaric chambers are designed for one person, while others are designed for multiple people to share. During the procedure, the air pressure will increase to two or three times normal pressure. If you are sharing the room with others, you might receive pure oxygen via a mask or close-fitting hood. In most cases the procedure has no side effects, but you might experience some pressure on your eyes and ears causing temporary changes to your vision. How do you prepare for hyperbaric oxygen therapy? Before the procedure you might be asked to remove any cosmetics, jewellery, watches or wigs, and you might be asked not to wear deodorant or perfume. Alternatives to this treatment If you have carbon monoxide poisoning, standard oxygen therapy may sometimes be recommended instead if available, because there is insufficient evidence to show that hyperbaric oxygen therapy is any more effective. Excluding the emergency situations outlined above, hyperbaric oxygen therapy is regarded as a form of complementary therapy in the UK. Therefore it’s important to continue with the medical treatment recommended by your doctor if you are living with a long-term condition such as trigeminal neuralgia or fibromyalgia. ...

Hypercholesterolemia

What is hypercholesterolemia? Hypercholesterolemia is an increase in the level of cholesterol in the blood above what is considered normal. The elevated level of cholesterol is related to coronary problems, lifestyle, gender, and diet. Various factors play a role in the disease; genetic and dietary factors need to be taken into account, as well as other ones related to physical activity. Symptoms of hypercholesterolemia: Patients often do not perceive that anything is wrong with them until the possible occurrence of a cardiovascular event, such as a heart attack or angina. In some cases, cholesterol deposits under the skin may appear (xanthomas or xanthelasma). What are the causes of hypercholesterolemia? The main factors contributing to hypercholesterolemia are: An unhealthy diet: excessive consumption of animal fats or alcohol makes the body consume other types of nutrients first, so it is more likely that cholesterol is not broken down and hence it accumulates in the arteries. Hepatic, renal or endocrine diseases. Familial hypercholesterolemia: a hereditary disease in which cholesterol cannot be broken down, leading to a gradual increase in its level. Can hypercholesterolemia be prevented? The main recommendations for preventing hypercholesterolemia are as follows: Follow a balanced diet (it is important to avoid saturated fats). Do physical activity of moderate intensity on a regular basis. Following these two recommendations also helps to prevent or control other risk factors for cardiovascular diseases that are sometimes associated with hypercholesterolemia, e.g. obesity or hypertension. How is hypercholesterolemia treated? Generally, all patients with hypercholesterolemia should improve their diet in order to reduce cholesterol levels, increase their physical activity and eliminate risk factors that could promote the development of associated diseases. If the dietary treatment does not achieve the desired goal, a pharmacological treatment should be added, one individualised to the patient, given that other risk factors should be taken into account, along with associated diseases. ...

Infectious

What is infectology?          Infectious disease, or infectology, is a branch of medicine that specialises in studying, diagnosing, and treating patients of all ages who have acute or chronic infectious diseases. The specialist who treats this is an infectologist. An infectious disease specialist has done three years specialisation during internal medicine residency and then three more years in the infectious diseases subspecialty. The infectologist carries out tests and medical exams such as: simple taking, culture testing, as well as lab testing to view cells in isolation and identify different microorganisms. Infectology can be a great help to people who travel to areas prone to infectious diseases. The infectologist will recommend some guidelines to follow and help prevent acquiring a disease via vaccination for patients most at risk. What conditions are treated? Generally internal medicine specialists treat patients who have an infectious disease due to a microorganism, which could be a virus, bacteria, parasite, fungi, or an infection due to two or more simultaneous diseases. The infectious disease specialist treats conditions including: AIDS, tuberculosis, disseminated infections, infections resistant to the standard antibiotics, prosthetic or foreign object infections, and infections in cancer patients dues to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. An internal medicine specialist may also diagnose and treat tropical diseases. Tropical diseases are a group of diseases that are more common in tropical areas and include: malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, chikungunya, schistosomiasis, cysticerocosis, onchocerciasis, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, and amoebiasis among others.       When should I see a specialist?  If there are no complications in an acute infectious disease and the patient has a strong immune system, then a general practitioner, family doctor, or an internal medicine specialist can treat it. The infectologist steps in when complications arise in patients who are immunodeficient, who have chronic diseases, or are at advanced ages. A specialist should be seen when the patient has a viral, bacterial, or a parasitic infection. A specialist should also be seen if the patient has: viral hepatitis, a sexually transmitted infection, toxoplasmosis, chagas disease, and malaria, among many others.  ...

Infectious diseases

What are infectious diseases? Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms which include viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites, hence there are many different types. They can be spread from person to person or can be transmitted from animals (these are known as zoonotic diseases). They can also be transmitted by insect bites. You may also become infected from coming into contact with contaminated food or water. Prognosis of infectious diseases: Infectious diseases range in prognosis, with some responding well to homecare and rest, whilst others can become life-threatening and require hospitalisation. Some infectious diseases, including the chickenpox, can be prevented with vaccinations. Symptoms of infectious diseases: Although the symptoms vary between each infectious disease, common symptoms between them include: Fever Fatigue Diarrhoea Aches A cough Medical tests to diagnose infectious diseases: As many infectious diseases have very similar symptoms, tests will usually be needed to determine the exact cause. The following tests may be carried out: Urine tests Blood tests Stool sample Throat sample – a swab is taken from the throat to examine. Lumbar puncture – a sample of cerebrospinal fluid is taken from the spine. Biopsies Scans – x-rays, CT or MRI scans What are the causes of infectious diseases? Infectious diseases can be caused by: Bacteria – single-cell organisms that cause infections like urinary tract infections and tuberculosis. Fungi – often causing skin conditions, such as ringworm and athlete’s foot. Viruses – these cause a huge range of diseases, including the common cold, HIV/AIDS and the Ebola virus. Parasites – these may be transmitted through insect bites and include malaria and dengue fever. Can infectious diseases be prevented? The following measures are the best ways to avoid infectious diseases: Good hygiene – wash your hands before and after preparing or eating food and before and after the toilet. Getting vaccinated Ensure you cook food safely and store food properly as well. Have safe sex using condoms When travelling, make sure you have any recommended vaccinations and drink bottled water. Avoid contact with wild animals Don’t share items like toothbrushes, razors or drinks. Treatments for infectious diseases: Once the cause of an infectious disease has been determined, your doctor will begin treatment. The following will be used: Antibiotics – usually used for bacterial infections (e.g. pneumonia) Antivirals – used to treat viral infections (e.g. HIV/AIDS and the flu virus) Antifungals – usually these are topical or oral and can treat fungal infections Anti-parasitic medications – treat diseases caused by parasites (e.g. malaria) Which type of specialist treats infectious diseases? Specialists in internal medicine can treat infectious diseases, but some doctors specialise solely in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. ...

Joint pain

Joint pain is usually caused by diseases such as arthritis, osteoarthritis and rheumatism. This type of joint pain is that of the musculoskeletal system and is often caused by inflammation due to internal bleeding in the joints, wearing of the joints, or a combination of both. The pain can affect the structures surrounding the joint, such as ligaments, bones, tendons, muscles, etc. Other symptoms of this type of pain are discomfort and fatigue in a particular area of ​​the body, punctures and a heavy sensation. Depending on the location of the joint, pain may cause limitation of motion, and depending on the severity of the injury joint swelling or warmth and redness in the area can occur. ...

Lymph nodes

What are lymph nodes? Lymph nodes, also known as lymph glands, are small glands found throughout the body and form a part of the lymph system. The lymph system is a network of organs and vessels the carries a fluid around the body between tissue and the blood. The fluid contains white blood cells called lymphocytes. The lymph system plays an integral part of the immune system, fighting against disease and infections. Where are they found in the body? Lymph nodes can be found on their own, or in groups. You can feel groups of lymph nodes in the neck, groin and underarms. You generally cannot feel most lymph nodes in the body, however, if they are swollen in the neck, you are able to feel them. What do lymph nodes do? Lymph nodes help to fight disease and they do so by filtering the lymph fluid and trapping any bacteria or viruses that pass through them. They are then destroyed by the lymphocytes, in an effort to destroy such substances before they infect other parts of the body. When lymph nodes are swollen, it usually means that they are exposed to bacteria and viruses and fighting an infection. What does it mean if my lymph nodes are swollen? It means that they are likely fighting an infection. However, more rarely, swollen lymph nodes could be caused by an underlying condition such as cancer. Swollen lymph nodes can feel tender or painful. Depending on which lymph nodes are swollen, it can help determine what the problem might be. Neck: Commonly swollen if you have a cold or sore throat. If there is a tumour or infection in the mouth, head or neck. Armpit: These lymph nodes might swell due to injury or infection in the hands or arms. Less common causes of swollen armpit lymph nodes are breast cancer and lymphoma. Groin: These will likely swell is there is an infection or injury to the feet, legs, groin or genitals. Less common causes of swelling in the groin lymph nodes are lymphoma, melanoma or testicular cancer. Collarbone: If the glands just above your collarbone are swollen, then there is likely an infection or injury in the breasts, neck, lungs or abdomen. When you should see a specialist If you are concerned at all, then you should see a doctor, however, it is recommended that you see a doctor if: They have been swollen for more than two weeks. They are swollen, but for no apparent reason such as infection or injury. They feel hard. The swollen lymph nodes have been accompanied by a fever. ...

Lymphadenopathy

What is adenopathy (lymphadenopathy)? Adenopathy is a term that refers to swelling of a gland, typically the lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy). A lymph node is an oval or kidney-shaped organ that forms part of the lymphatic system - a network of nodes, organs and lymphatic vessels situated all over the body. The lymph node’s primary function is to fight infection. The lymphatic system is in fact a vital part of the immune system, helping to identify sources of infection and preventing other parts of the body becoming infected also. What are the symptoms? Lymph nodes are located all over the body and consequently, swelling can appear in a number of locations. Common signs of a lymphadenopathy are swelling in the neck, groin, and armpits and under the chin. The swelling can be accompanied by tenderness in the lymph nodes, fever, sore throat and runny nose. If the swelling has been present for two to four weeks and the lymph nodes continue to get bigger, or the nodes are hard and rubbery and don’t move when pressed, it may be an indication of something more serious. Symptoms might also include night sweats. What causes it? Swollen lymph nodes can have multiple underlying causes. Usually, a common infection like measles, common colds, tonsillitis, ear infections, and strep throat is the root cause of lymphadenopathy. Less commonly, certain STIs, tuberculosis, infection from a cat scratch or toxoplasmosis can lead to swelling of the lymph nodes. HIV infection is also a potential underlying cause. Aside from infections, occasionally autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and lupus will cause swollen lymph nodes. In rare instances, swelling of the lymph nodes can indicate cancers such as leukaemia (cancer of the blood and bone marrow) or lymphoma, cancer of the lymph system. Swelling can also result as a side effect of certain medications. Anyone concerned about the cause of lymph node swelling should see a doctor to establish the cause. What is the treatment? Lymph nodes are not treated directly, rather the underlying condition is treated. If the underlying cause is an infection, then the lymph nodes will normally return to normal after the infection clears up. If swollen lymph nodes are caused by an autoimmune disorder or cancer, then the underlying conditions are targeted. If the lymph nodes themselves are tender or painful, the symptoms are often treated with over-the-counter pain medication, plenty of rest and warm compressions to help with the swelling.  ...

Metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome, or plurimetabolic syndrome is the association of different health problems that can occur simultaneously or in a sequence in the same patient. Insulin resistance, genetics, environment and lifestyle are the most common causes related to this syndrome that involves a number of risks to the health, so they must be controlled immediately by a specialist. The insulin resistance causes diabetes, which is associated with a rise in blood pressure, increased cholesterol and triglyceride levels and obesity on the waist area. The main causes, especially in people over 40 years but also younger, include prolonged stress over time, a poor diet, and long fasting between meals. The general pattern of these patients is that, after a period of time with this lifestyle, they suddenly suffer a decline in their quality of life and health without seeming ill. ...

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome is when a baby cannot gain enough oxygen as its lungs are immature. It usually occurs in premature babies as it is due to a lack of surfactant in the lungs, a substance that keeps the lungs inflated and allows air to circulate freely. Other risk factors can be maternal diabetes, an underweight baby or other diseases. ...

Nephritic syndrome

What is nephritic syndrome?       Nephritic syndrome refers to a collection of symptoms which occur as a result of kidney inflammation. Nephritic syndrome can be diagnosed when the following symptoms appear: Oedemas; fluid accumulation in the legs and face Haematuria; which is the presence of blood in the urine High blood pressure If these symptoms are present and there is a decreased kidney function and a loss of protein in the urine, this can indicate nephritic syndrome.        Syndrome prognosis   Syndrome prognosis will depend on what is causing the nephritic syndrome. In cases of improvement, symptoms such as oedema, cough, and blood pressure will lessen in one or two weeks. Urine tests may take several months to be normal. Children tend to have a better prognosis, and in many cases make a full recovery. There are few cases in which complications arise that lead to chronic glomerulonephritis or chronic kidney disease. In adults, recovery takes longer and is more complicated. In some cases, acute nephritic syndrome may recur leading to end-stage renal disease that requires dialysis or a kidney transplant.      What are the symptoms?     Common symptoms include: Blood in the urine Decreased urine volume Legs, face, sockets, arms, feet, hands, and abdominal swelling High blood pressure. Other symptoms are: Blurred vision, this is normally due to a ruptured retinal blood vessel. Phlegmy cough, with pink or foamy sputum, due to fluid in the lungs.  Difficulty breathing due to fluid in the lungs. Inability to perform daily tasks, feeling drowsy, confused, and having aches and pains. Other symptoms may include kidney failure or chronic kidney disease.   Medical tests Through diagnostic tests, the specialist can identify the following signs and symptoms: High blood pressure Abnormal heart and pulmonary sounds. Fluid retention symptoms such as; legs, arms, face, and abdominal swelling. Dilated neck veins.  Medical tests may include: Measuring electrolytes in the blood Calculate blood urea nitrogen Measure creatinine Do a creatinine clearance Potassium test Identify possible protein in the urine Urine analysis.    A renal biopsy may show an inflammatory lesion and white blood cells in the glomeruli. This can be due to several diseases.     What causes it? Nephritic syndrome is caused by an immune system response to an infection or disease. The most common causes in children and teens include:   Haemolytic-uremic syndrome, a disorder that appears after a digestive tract infection produces harmful substances that kill red blood cells and affect the kidneys. Schönlein-Henoch purpura, a disorder that includes gastrointestinal problems and glomerulonephritis. Immunoglobulin A nephropathy, disorder in which IgA antibodies are stored in the kidney tissue. Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, disorder that affects the kidney and appears after an infection with strains of streptococcus.  The most common causes in adults include:     Abdominal abscesses. Goodpasture syndrome (GPS), a rare immune system disease that attacks the glomerulus. Hepatitis B or C. Endocarditis, inflammation of the inner lining of the heart chambers and valves, caused by a bacterial infection or fungi. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN), a disorder that affects the kidneys. Glomerulonephritis with crescents, a type of glomerulonephritis that causes a rapid loss of kidney function. Lupus nephritis, a kidney complication of systemic lupus erythematosus. Vasculitis, inflammation of blood vessels. Viral diseases such as; mononucleosis (glandular fever), measles, or mumps. How can it be prevented? There is no known way to prevent the syndrome, but correctly treating it and any infections can greatly improve the patient’s quality of life.   In most cases, the syndrome cannot be avoided, but treatment will help the disease and any infections, improve quality of life, and reduce the risk of complications. What is the treatment? Treatment aims to reduce kidney swelling and control high blood pressure. The patient may need to be hospitalised to get diagnosed and treated. The specialist will likely recommend the following:  Bed rest Follow a low in salt and potassium diet and avoid liquids with meals High blood pressure medications or diuretics   Some cases may require kidney dialysis.   What specialist should I see? The specialist who treats nephritic syndrome is a nephrologist. A nephrologist studies the kidneys, their functions and diseases. Their aim is to diagnose and treat kidney diseases.    ...

Neuropathic pain

What is neuropathic pain? Neuropathic pain is a neurological disorder in which people experience intense chronic pain due to nerve damage. It often results from an injury or disease of the peripheral or central nervous system. Neuropathy can exist without pain, in the same way that pain can exist without evidence of nerve injury. Neuropathic pain, therefore, can be defined as a sensation or unpleasant emotional experience associated with dysfunction or injury of the nervous system. What are the symptoms of neuropathic pain? This pain usually causes numbness and pain in the hands and feet, as well as tingling or burning. Along with pain, other symptoms may appear, such as: Insomnia Constipation Lack of appetite Anxiety Vomiting Weakness Discomfort in the mouth Acute pain or a stinging sensation What causes neuropathic pain? Peripheral neuropathic pain, or chronic neuropathic pain, is a result of damage to the peripheral nerves. This damage can be caused by: Nutritional imbalances Alcoholism Toxins Infections Autoimmunity Amputation Diabetes Diseases, such as kidney failure or cancer Trauma to the nerves Shingles Thyroid problems How is neuropathic pain treated? The treatment for neuropathic pain can vary according to each case. These are the treatments available: Medication: The first thing that specialists recommend are certain medications (e.g. antidepressants, NSAIDs, painkillers). Physiotherapy: To reconstitute the muscles so they can move normally and with less pain. Psychological therapy: pain can cause stress in the patient. This therapy helps the patient to manage the pain and resulting stress. Nerve blocks: local anaesthesia or steroid injections are administered at the origin of the pain, providing temporary relief. Medical devices: implantable devices can modulate pain signals before reaching the brain. ...

Obesity

Obesity is defined as having an abnormal or excessive accumulation of fat on the body, enough so that it can be a risk to the health of the person. There most common way of classifying the amount of weight on the body, and what constitutes as a healthy balance, is the body mass index (BMI), which is calculated by dividing your weight in kilograms, by your height, squared. The NHS classifies obesity as having a body mass index of 30 to 39.9, with those over 40 being classified as severely obese, though it is not necessarily the case as those with a large amount of muscle could be classified as obese due to their weight, when it may not actually be accurate. Another way of measuring excess fat is to measure waist circumference, for men, obesity is generally considered as being larger than 94cm (37in), and 80cm (21.5in) for women.   What causes obesity?   Simply speaking, obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are burned off through physical activity. When food is consumed, especially excessive amounts of fat and sugar in the diet, the body stores it as energy, in the form of fat. There are some health conditions that can lead to obesity and weight gain, such as problems with the thyroid, especially hypothyroidism.   How is obesity treated?   The best ways of treating obesity is to increase the amount of physical activity you perform on a regular basis, and to reduce the amount of calories eaten, along with eating a healthy, balanced diet. There are a number of ways that you can do this, such as joining a weight loss group to help you manage your diet and motivate you to continue sticking to it. You can also start activities such as walking, swimming or running. You can begin with exercising for short periods of time, before building up to longer periods. There are a number of surgical procedures available to help deal with weight loss in more severe circumstances, such as gastric band, gastric bypass, and biliopancreatic diversion.   What problems can obesity lead to?   Obesity can be detrimental to the health, leading to problems in different areas of the body. It can cause strain on the heart, leading to coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and other conditions. It is one of the leading causes of diabetes type 2, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), and infertility and can also have detrimental psychiatric effects such as depression along side often having a social stigma. To see a specialist to help with obesity, click here. Obesity is one of the most common diseases of modern society, caused by bad eating habits that cause a metabolic disorder in the form of excess fat and consequently overweight. If the caloric intake that provides the body is greater than that required or consumed is stored as fat. Besides, obesity may result in the acquisition of other diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, high cholesterol or cardiovascular risk. In any case, obesity treatment tailored to each person according to their age, physique, medical history and daily habits is required. By measuring the body mass index patient's degree of obesity it is known and established a slimming diet should be low calorie, low fat, with the establishment of a rehabilitation plan of eating habits and exercise. The tandem diet-exercise physical is essential for weight loss. Obesity is one of the most common diseases of modern society, caused by bad eating habits that cause a metabolic disorder in the form of excess fat and consequently overweight. If the caloric intake that provides the body is greater than that required or consumed is stored as fat. Besides, obesity may result in the acquisition of other diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, high cholesterol or cardiovascular risk. In any case, obesity treatment tailored to each person according to their age, physique, medical history and daily habits is required. By measuring the body mass index patient's degree of obesity it is known and established a slimming diet should be low calorie, low fat, with the establishment of a rehabilitation plan of eating habits and exercise. The tandem diet-exercise physical is essential for weight loss. ...

Obstructive bronchitis

Obstructive bronchitis, or obstructive airway syndrome, is a condition that affects the bronchi. This disease can develop for various reasons, including the most common, a viral infection. ...

Oedema

What is oedema? Oedema (spelt “edema” in some countries) is swelling caused by the accumulation of fluid in a part of the body. It is often accompanied by inflammation. Oedema usually affects the feet, ankles and legs, although it can occur anywhere in the body. Pulmonary oedema, for example, occurs in the lungs and can cause difficulty breathing.   Symptoms of oedema The main symptoms of oedema are: Stretched and shiny looking skin Swelling Feeling of heaviness or even pain   Causes of oedema Oedema is caused by excess fluid becoming trapped in the body’s tissues, and this is often caused by fluid leaking from the bloodstream. Therefore, many of the causes of oedema have to do with things that affect the patient’s circulation. Factors that can lead to oedema include: Eating a lot of salt Being overweight Sitting or standing for a long time in the same position Pregnancy Certain medications Injury Liver problems Kidney problems Heart problems Problems with the lymph nodes Insect bites/stings Infections A blood clot   Can oedema be prevented? There is no way to detect oedema before its appearance and thus avoid or prevent it. The risk of oedema can be lowered by maintaining a healthy body weight, not eating too much salt, and avoiding sitting in the same position for too long at any one time. These measures help maintain good blood circulation and minimise the chances of other health problems.   Oedema treatment The best way to treat oedema is by directly treating the cause. It is very important to treat oedema because, in addition to the annoying symptoms, the skin can continue to stretch. For swelling in the feet and ankles, the following can help: Lie down and raise the affected area with a pillow. Don’t wear tight clothes – especially shoes and socks. Wide, comfortable shoes with a soft sole and low heel are ideal. Do some gentle exercise – this will help improve circulation. Avoid sitting or standing in the same position for long periods. Keep your feet and ankles clean by washing, drying and moisturising them – this will help to avoid infections. If oedema doesn’t improve on its own within a few days, you should consult a doctor, particularly if it gets worse. In the following circumstances, you should ask for an urgent appointment: You have a high fever and/or are shivering. The swelling is red and inflamed and feels hot to the touch. You also have diabetes. The swelling is particularly severe or painful. The swelling appears very suddenly. Only one foot or ankle is swollen and you have no idea why. If you are short of breath, struggling to breathe, and/or are experiencing chest pain or tightness, call 999, as it could indicate a blood clot in the lungs. Persistent oedema may require lifestyle changes, such as adopting a low salt diet or losing weight. ...

Osteoporosis

What is osteoporosis? Osteoporosis, meaning “porous bone”, is a disease in which the bones become weak and brittle due to the body either losing too much bone or making too little. On a microscopic level, the structure of healthy bone resembles a honeycomb, with hollows and spaces. In bones affected by osteoporosis, these hollows and spaces are much wider, meaning the bones are less dense, and therefore weaker than they should be. This makes them susceptible to breaks and fractures.   Symptoms of osteoporosis Most of the time, a person will not realise they have osteoporosis until they break or fracture a bone. The hip and wrist are the most common places that fractures occur, while spinal fractures are also relatively common. Stooped posture (in older people) and particularly significant loss of height (>2 inches) should always prompt investigation for osteoporosis.   Medical tests to diagnose osteoporosis The DEXA or DXA scan is a reliable method to measure bone mineral density using a low-intensity X-ray. It is painless, straight-forward, and involves minimal radiation – in fact, the operator sits in the same room as the patient. After the scan is done, the results are compared to that of a young, healthy individual, and based on accepted criteria a diagnosis of osteoporosis may be made.   What are the causes of osteoporosis? Losing bone is a natural part of getting older, but some people will lose bone density faster than others. In general, women have a higher risk of getting osteoporosis than men, especially in the years following the onset of the menopause, when bone density is lost more rapidly. Things that can increase the risk of osteoporosis include: A family history of osteoporosis Certain other medical conditions, e.g. inflammatory conditions, malabsorption problems, some hormone-related conditions, etc. Certain medications  (corticosteroids in particular). Heavy drinking and/or smoking Low BMI (body mass index)   Can osteoporosis be prevented? While it is impossible to prevent a condition like osteoporosis with 100% certainty, you can lower the risk of getting the disease by taking steps in your lifestyle to keep your bones healthy: Regular exercise Diet - a healthy, calcium-rich diet, and vitamin D supplementation Give up smoking and reduce alcohol intake.   Treatments for osteoporosis Treating osteoporosis revolves around treating fractures caused by the condition and trying to improve bone strength, which may involve medication. Your doctor will advise you on treatment depending on the results of your DXA scan and the cause of your osteoporosis. Most of the therapies available slow down the rate of bone loss and decrease fracture risk except for parathyroid hormone analogues which effectively stimulate bone formation. Possible treatments include: Biphosphonates to slow the rate of bone loss HRT  – in menopausal women Testosterone treatment – if osteoporosis is a result of hypogonadism in men. Selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) Denosumab (Prolia) – subcutaneous injections at six monthly intervals Parathyroid hormone analogues – delivered via subcutaneous injection, this hormone can actually increase bone density   Which type of specialist treats osteoporosis? Endocrinologists and rheumatologists treat osteoporosis. ...

Pneumonia

What is pneumonia? Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungs caused by infection. Primarily affecting the alveoli – small air sacs deep in the lungs, where oxygen passes into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide passes out back into the lungs – pneumonia is when these air sacs become inflamed and fill with fluid. What many people don’t realise is that pneumonia is not a specific type of infection, but rather an effect that can be created by several causes, mainly bacteria or viruses. The severity can vary, with some patients – particularly babies, elderly people, and those with compromised immune systems or other diseases – becoming very ill. Some may need hospital treatment, and for some, it can even prove fatal. What are the symptoms of pneumonia? As the alveoli are filled with fluid, pneumonia can cause difficulty breathing, coughing and chest pain. Other common signs of pneumonia include: Fever Coughing up mucus Sweating and shivering Loss of appetite Feeling generally unwell Rapid heartbeat Fatigue Less commonly, patients may experience: Headaches Nausea/vomiting Wheezing Joint and muscle pain Coughing up blood Confusion/delirium – especially in older patients. What causes pneumonia? Many types of bacteria, viruses and even some fungi can cause pneumonia. The most common cause is infection by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumonia. Other culprits include: Bacteria: Haemophilus influenza Straphylococcus aureus Viruses Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) Influenza type A Influenza type B Fungal pneumonia – rare in the UK Aspiration pneumonia – this is caused by breathing in something harmful, such as smoke, chemicals, vomit, or a foreign object. Those at a greater risk of catching pneumonia include babies, elderly people, smokers, people with compromised immune systems (such as those with HIV or AIDS, or people who have recently had flu), and people with other chronic health issues, such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, or heart disease.   How can it be prevented? While most cases of pneumonia are bacterial in nature and aren’t contagious, you can reduce the risk of it spreading by maintaining good standards of hygiene, for example, by covering your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, throwing away tissues immediately (germs can survive for hours after leaving your body), and washing your hands regularly. Avoiding smoking and reducing alcohol intake can help to maintain your lungs and their natural defences, as smoking and drinking can leave them weakened. People with a higher risk of infection are advised to have the pneumococcal vaccine and flu vaccine.   What is the treatment for pneumonia? Milder cases of pneumonia may be treated at home with plenty of rest and fluids, and by taking antibiotics (if appropriate – consult your doctor first!). For serious cases, the patient may need to be hospitalised, and treated by doctors there. The speed of recovery depends on the individual case. It is not uncommon for recovery to take weeks, and even months for all the symptoms (particularly fatigue) to resolve. ...

Preventive medicine

What is preventive medicine? Preventive medicine is a combination of medical practices that are designed to avoid disease and illness. It is a proactive approach to patient care. Doctors use preventative measures to ensure that any sickness is minimised and detected early so that a patient has the best chance of recovery to optimum health. Rather than treating conditions once they arise, preventive medicine means getting ahead of the potential problems by promoting healthy behaviours and screening for diseases to keep people from becoming sick in the first place.   Who practices preventive medicine? Licensed medical doctors (MD) or doctors of osteopathy (DO) practice preventive medicine.     What are the preventive services? There are many methods for prevention of disease. It is recommended that children and adults visit their doctor regularly for check-ups even if they feel healthy. This is so that the doctor can perform disease screening, identify risk factors for disease, and discuss a plan for a healthy and balanced lifestyle and be up to date with vaccinations. The following services are available under preventive medicine: Blood pressure, diabetes and cholesterol tests Cancer screenings Counselling for depression Sexually transmitted infections Routine vaccinations against diseases such as measles or meningitis Counselling, screening and vaccines for healthy pregnancies Flu shots Why is preventive medicine important? Preventive medicine can detect pre or early stages of chronic diseases, such as diabetes or heart disease. Screening and detection are critical alongside healthy habits, which include eating well, exercising and no tobacco use. What are the commonest diseases screened for in preventive medicine? Some common screenings include checking for: • Hypertension • High blood sugar (a risk factor for diabetes) • High blood cholesterol • Screening for colon cancer • Depression • HIV and other common types of STIs  • Mammography (to check for breast cancer) • A Pap test (to check for cervical cancer) • Screening for osteoporosis   Who benefits from preventive medicine? Preventive medicine can be beneficial for everyone. However, the benefits are different depending on the individual person and their age. Before the age of 40, information and a close link with one dedicated doctor is very important. Between the ages of 40 and 70, chronic disease is at the highest risk. ...

Rheumatic diseases

What are rheumatic diseases? Rheumatic diseases are a group of diverse diseases of non-traumatic origin, which mainly affect the musculoskeletal system, such as joints, bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments. However, they can also affect other organs or systems. There are more than 200 known rheumatic diseases. Some examples include: Arthritis – conditions causing inflammation of the joints. There are many forms of arthritis, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout. Arthrosis Bursitis Giant cell arteritis Lupus Osteoporosis Polymyalgia rheumatica   What are the symptoms of rheumatic diseases? The symptoms vary according to the person and the pathology. However, the most frequent symptoms are: Pain, often becoming chronic pain Heat, redness and swelling in the joints, especially in the case of rheumatoid arthritis Stiffness of the joints, particularly in the morning Fatigue, tiredness, feeling of weakness and lack of energy Sleep alterations General malaise Fever Muscle contractions Tingling and burning near the joint Loss of function of one or more joints Limited mobility In addition, certain rheumatic diseases can cause other symptoms in various organs or systems, such as the skin (spots or wounds), the kidneys (blood in the urine), the eyes (loss of vision), the lungs or the heart (chest pain or shortness of breath).   Causes of rheumatic diseases There are a number of factors that can cause rheumatic diseases. These include: Autoimmune – the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells, e.g. rheumatoid arthritis Degeneration (due to natural wear and tear, old injuries, stress on joints due to weight, etc.), e.g. osteoarthritis Genetics – some people may be predisposed to rheumatic diseases due to their genes. Infections, e.g. rheumatic fever   Can rheumatic diseases be prevented? Rheumatic diseases cannot be prevented with 100% certainty; however some of the associated risk factors can be avoided. It is recommended to protect the joints from excessive efforts and repetitive movements, and it is also important to maintain a healthy body weight to reduce stress on the joints. Early diagnosis is very important, since it can prevent the worsening of symptoms.   What is the treatment? The treatment of rheumatic diseases depends on the specific condition, but may include one or a combination of the following: Rest Moderate exercise Healthy diet Physiotherapy Insoles, knee braces, and other orthopaedic devices Painkillers, anti-inflammatories, and other medications as prescribed by the doctor Surgery ...

Systemic sclerosis

  Systemic sclerosis or scleroderma is a mixed connective tissue disease affecting skin, internal organs, joints and blood vessels. The main symptom of systemic sclerosis is swelling and hardening of the skin, and inflammation and scarring in many parts of the body that cause problems in organs like the heart, lungs, or kidneys, among others. The disease can occur in severe form resulting in death, or mild form in which it manifests itself only in a localized way. Thus, there are two main types of MS. The first is localized scleroderma, which affects only the skin, causing discolored areas, thick grooves or slots, and the second is systemic scleroderma which affects the skin, blood vessels and internal organs. In localized scleroderma there is a variety called linear morphea that occurs most often in children and can cause functional impairment, joint contractures, deformity and neurological manifestations. Treatment of the disease depends on the type and severity of symptoms. ...

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