Professor Gordana Prelevic

Professor Gordana Prelevic
Endocrinology, diabetes & metabolism
Central London


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Professor Gordana Prelevic

Endocrinologist in
London

MD MSc DSc FRCP

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Professor Gordana Prelevic areas of expertise:

Professional statement

Professor Gordana Prelevic is one of London's leading endocrinologists. Her main area of expertise is reproductive endocrinology with special interests in the polycystic ovary syndrome, menopause and osteoporosis.

Professor Gordana Prelevic practises at the London Claremont Clinic and the Wellington Diagnostics and Outpatient Centre. She has published extensively in peer-reviewed journals and has contributed to numerous book chapters. She also works as an expert witness in endocrinology and forms an integral part of various reputable professional bodies.

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 Credentials

GMC: ‍4246626

 Professional experience

• More than 45 years of experience
• Consultant Endocrinologist, London Claremont Clinic (2014-present)
• Consultant Endocrinologist, The Wellington Diagnostics and Outpatient Centre (2013 – present)
• Consultant in Reproductive Endocrinology, Whittington Health (2002 - 2015)
• Expert Witness (2001 - present)
• Consultant Endocrinologist, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust (1996 - 2015)
• Consultant Endocrinologist, University College London Hospitals (1996-2004)

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 Sub-specialties

• Reproductive endocrinology
• Polycystic ovary syndrome
• Menopause
• Osteoporosis

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 Teaching posts

• Senior Lecturer in Reproductive Endocrinology at University College, London
• Professor of Medicine and Endocrinology, Belgrade University School of Medicine

 Education

• MD, University of Belgrade (1971)
• ECFMG (1972)
• MSc in Endorinology, University of Belgrade (1978)
• Specialist Certificate in Internal Medicine, Belgrade (1979)
• DSc, University of Belgrade (1985)
• FRCP London (1995)
• CUEW, Cardiff University (2005)

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 Publications and conferences

• Has over 300 publications including more than 100 scientific papers published in international medical journals and over 20 book chapters
• Co-editor of “Drug Therapy in Reproductive Endocrinology”, Arnold Publishing (1996)

 Prizes and awards

• Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (FRCP) (1995)
• Diploma of the Serbian Endocrine Society (1992)
• Pioneer Scholar at Joint USA-Yugoslav Scientific Cooperation Program (1992)
• Diploma of the Serbian Medical Association (1987)

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 Professional membership

• Society for Endocrinology, UK (1993 - present)
• Endocrine Society, USA (1993 - present)
• British Medical Association (1993 - present)
• Member of Expert Witness Institute (2006 - present)
• Member of The Faculty of Expert Witnesses for Doctors (FEW) (2015 - present)

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Languages spoken

  • English
  • Serbian

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Diseases, Medical Tests and Treatments

Hyperparathyroidism

What is hyperparathyroidism? Hyperparathyroidism refers to an excess of parathyroid hormone in the bloodstream. This occurs due to overactivity in ...

Hypothyroidism

What is hypothyroidism? Hypothyroidism, otherwise known as underactive thyroid, is a condition affecting the thyroid gland, causing it to under ...

Menopause

What is the menopause? The menopause refers to the process which naturally occurs in women as a result of ageing, meaning they no longer have p ...

Osteoporosis

What is osteoporosis? Osteoporosis, meaning “porous bone”, is a disease in which the bones become weak and brittle due to the body either losing to ...

Polycystic ovaries

Polycystic ovaries is a condition that occurs when there is an imbalance in the female ovaries or adrenal glands so they produce more male hormones than normal. The result is the development of cysts (tiny fluid-filled balloons) in the ovaries. Women can develop the syndrome during the teen years or reproductive age, being more common in obese women. Although sometimes there are no symptoms, some symptoms the patient may experience include irregular, infrequent or absent menstrual periods, infertility, pelvic pain, excess hair on the face, chest, abdomen and fingers, hair loss or weak hair, acne, oily skin or dandruff. Birth control pills can help regulate the period and reduce male hormone levels, so this is the treatment usually prescribed for polycystic ovaries. When the ovaries produce multiple small cysts (no more than 1 cm in diameter), it is micropolycystic ovaries syndrome, which usually has the same symptoms. Likewise, the treatment for micropolycystic ovaries may also be based on the administration of the contraceptive pill.   ...

Thyroid disorders

What are thyroid disorders? The thyroid is an essential gland in the body which produces thyroid hormones. These hormones control and influence many bodily functions, such as body temperature, energy levels, and metabolism. Thyroid disorders occur for different reasons, but they have an effect on the body’s metabolic functions and produce adverse reactions. Thyroid disorders are relatively common and worldwide, they affect more women than men. What are the symptoms? There are many types of thyroid disorder, meaning there are also many different symptoms. Symptoms depend on the kind of thyroid disorder the patient has. Some more common thyroid problems include goitre, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroid nodules, and thyroiditis. Thyroid cancer is another condition affecting the thyroid. These conditions affect bodily functions and the metabolic system, so symptoms can include: Weight gain Menstrual changes Poor concentration Nervousness Feeling depressed Fatigue Feeling cold Hair loss Mood swings Low sex drive Symptoms vary depending on the type of thyroid disorder, and doctors will take a medical history and assess the symptoms displayed in order to correctly diagnose the type of thyroid condition affecting the patient.   What causes thyroid disorders? Thyroid disorders can be caused in different ways, including related conditions such as autoimmune disease or inflammatory disorders, certain medication, radiation therapy (e.g for cancer), pregnancy, iodine deficiency, and congenital disease. There are various different causes and anyone can develop a thyroid condition. Some risk factors include: Being a woman over the age of sixty Having received radiation therapy in the neck or chest Being pregnant or having had a baby in the last 6 months Having an autoimmune disease Having a family history of thyroid disorder Having had thyroid surgery How can they be prevented? Thyroid disorders cannot really be prevented, but keeping the thyroid healthy is important and there are certain things you can do to reduce the risk. Cigarette smokers are more likely to develop thyroid eye complications related to Graves’ disease, and certain toxins in cigarettes can affect the thyroid, triggering thyroid disease. During X-rays, a special collar can be worn which covers the thyroid and reduces the chances of it being exposed to radiation.   What is the treatment? There are various treatments of thyroid disorders, as there are multiple types of condition and each case must be considered individually. In order to correctly diagnose the thyroid condition, a doctor must first investigate and take a medical history, and measure thyroid hormone levels. A medical evaluation is essential in order to assess what kind of care is needed. Treatments include medication to lower, supplement or eliminate hormone production, and surgery to remove the thyroid gland, sometimes indicated in those with cancer, or particularly large goitres.   ...

Adrenal glands disorders

What are adrenal gland disorders? Adrenal gland disorders are a group of conditions affecting the adrenal glands, which are endocrine glands located above the kidneys. These glands are responsible for producing a variety of hormones, which include adrenaline, steroid hormones such as androgens, and corticosteroids. These hormones help the body to control blood sugar, react to stress (e.g injury/illness), regulate blood pressure, and burn fat. Thus, if the adrenal glands are dysfunctional, this can result in an endocrine condition. There are various types of adrenal gland disorder, including Cushing’s syndrome, Addison’s disease, adrenal gland tumours, and hereditary disorders. What causes adrenal gland disorders? Adrenal gland disorders may occur for several reasons. In many disorders, hormone production is either too little or too high, causing an insufficiency or an abnormal abundance. Adrenal gland disorders can be a result of the following: Tumours Infection Particular types of medication Hereditary conditions/genetic mutation A problem in another of the body’s endocrine glands, e.g. the pituitary gland What are the symptoms? As there are various types of adrenal gland disorders, symptoms will vary depending on the condition. Cushing’s syndrome symptoms are more commonly: upper body obesity, high blood pressure, weakness in the muscles and in the bones, high blood sugar levels, skin conditions such as acne or marks/streaks on the abdomen, slow growth rates (in children), and irritability or depression. Addison’s disease symptoms include: weight loss, fatigue, low blood pressure, salt cravings, feeling dizzy when standing up, nausea, vomiting, feeling weak, noticing patches of dark(er) skin, and depression. Congential adrenal hyperplasia symptoms can be mild or more serious, and symptoms may even be so mild that they do not cause the individual problems. Symptoms of mild CAH include: early signs of puberty, acne, irregular periods, excess facial hair in women, and a shorter than average final height (in younger adults). Symptoms of more serious or severe CAH include: low blood pressure, low blood sugars, difficulty retaining salt in the body, excess facial hair in women, benign testicular tumours in men, infertility in men, abnormal development of the external genitalia in girls, and difficulty for women getting pregnant. Tumours of the adrenal gland can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the hormone which the tumour is overproducing. Some tumours do not produce hormones, but damage the pituitary and do not allow it to secrete the right level of hormones. As a result, the adrenal glands will not function as they should, either. What is the treatment? Treatment depends on the adrenal gland disorder affecting the individual, but generally treatment will be surgical or medical. Treatments include: Medication which seeks to stop excess production of hormones Hormone replacement medication/therapy Tumour removal surgery Surgery to remove one or both of the adrenal glands Surgery to remove tumours of the pituitary gland ...

Childhood obesity

What is it?        Obesity can be described as the accumulation of fat in the body. This means a higher body weight in relation to sex, height, and age. Childhood obesity affects a large number of children in developed countries, where cases are increasing alarmingly. Children can go on to have serious medical issues in adulthood and develop heart disease, diabetes, high cholesterol, sleep apnea, or other conditions. As well as physical issues, this can quite often lead to psychological issues such as low self-esteem, depression, or a feeling of inferiority, which can prevent the child from interacting with others and therefore limit their social relationships. Occasionally the issue stems from a condition or hormone imbalance but more often than not it is due to an unhealthy diet. This is why following a balanced diet and exercising regularly is so important.          Condition prognosis    Cases of childhood obesity have been increasing in Europe and in the United States of America. Obesity has become known as a modern epidemic and in order to avoid it people should be encouraged to eat healthily and exercise more. It is not a deadly disease if controlled, however if it is not carefully monitored it can lead to more complicated diseases and conditions in the future.        What are the symptoms? The main symptoms of childhood obesity include: Being more prone to develop cardiovascular diseases Psychological issues such as anxiety and depression due to bullying Not taking part in sports Internal organ problems with the liver or stomach. Medical tests A paediatric endocrinologist will carry out the relevant tests to confirm whether the child is obese or overweight. These tests include physical exams, questions about their eating habits, and their exercise routine. Blood tests are often done to check if there is a thyroid issue.  What causes it?     When children eat more food than they need to and don’t do any exercise, the calories they ingest are stored and they are more likely to become obese. There are many things that could lead to children eating more and doing less exercise. Adverts on TV and the internet can encourage this unhealthy lifestyle. The ads are normally for products that are high in sugar and this lifestyle choice encourages children to spend hours in front of a screen and not exercise.   Other influencing factors include family, friends, school, and the general environment that the child is being brought up around and developing their eating habits from. Genetic factors, medical issues, and emotional issues could also lead to an increase in ingesting more calories than the body needs, which can lead to obesity.  How can it be prevented? Childhood obesity can be prevented by developing healthy eating habits and leading by example. It is important to follow a healthy and balanced diet rich in fruit and vegetables and with less sugary drinks. Having structured meal plans, including a filling breakfast, not eating junk food, and not using food as a reward, can help.   Exercise is crucial, it is recommended that children exercise for at least 60 minutes a day. This can be split into shorter periods of time.    What is the treatment? Treatment includes following a balanced diet. Some guidelines to follow include: Monitor portion sizes Buy healthy food and make it accessible to children Have a varied diet with healthy snacks and drinks Reduce the amount of junk food eaten such as; chips, cakes, cookies, and other similar food items Avoid sugary drinks. What specialist should I see?  The specialist who treats childhood obesity is a paediatric endocrinologist.       ...

Cholesterol

What is cholesterol? Cholesterol is a fatty substance known as a lipid, which is mainly made by the liver and can also be found in some foods. It is vital for the human body to function properly but if the levels of cholesterol are too high in the blood, it can result in heart disease and heart stroke among other problems. Cholesterol can increase with age and is only detected through a blood test. There is also something else that may need to be monitored if someone has high cholesterol, and that is triglycerides. Having a high level of triglycerides, a type of fat (lipid) in the blood, can also increase the risk of heart disease. Why is it important to lower cholesterol? Evidence shows that high cholesterol levels can increase the risk of having a heart attack, a stroke, a mini-stroke (known as transient ischaemic attack) or a peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Cholesterol can build up in the artery wall, which restricts the blood flow to the heart, brain and the rest of the body. It can also increase the risk of a blood clot in other parts of the body. The risk of developing coronary heart disease is also higher when the blood’s cholesterol level increases. What causes high cholesterol? There are many factors that increase the chances of having high cholesterol, which include: An unhealthy diet – especially eating high levels of saturated fat. Smoking Diabetes Hypertension (high blood pressure). A family history of stroke or heart disease. Even people who eat healthily can inherit a condition called familial hypercholesterolemia, which can cause high cholesterol. What should my cholesterol levels be? The levels of blood cholesterol is measured in millimoles per litre of blood (mmol/L.) Total cholesterol levels should be 5mmol/L or less for healthy adults or 4mmol/L or less for those who are at high risk. Low-density lipoprotein (LPL) levels should at 3mmol/L or less for healthy adults or 2mmol/L or less for those at high risk. How to lower cholesterol levels? To reduce the level of cholesterol, it is recommended to maintain a healthy and balanced diet, which is low in fatty foods. Regular exercise and quitting smoking are also recommended to lower the levels of cholesterol. If following these steps does not reduce the cholesterol levels, a doctor may prescribe medication such as Statins to help. Statins block the chemicals in the liver that help to make cholesterol, which leads to a reduction the blood cholesterol level. They are only prescribed to people who are at a high risk of heart disease and will need to be taken for life. Low cholesterol diet A balanced diet, low in saturated fats can reduce LDL (bad cholesterol). The following foods should be avoided or the intake reduced: Fatty meats and meat products Butter and lard Cream, sour cream and ice cream Cheese Cake and biscuits Chocolate Coconut oil  ...

DEXA scan

What is a DEXA scan? A dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, (or bone density scan) is a technique used to measure bone density. The scan is quick and painless and involves the patient lying on their back on an X-ray table. There is no tunnel to pass through as with an MRI or CT scan, so there is no feeling of claustrophobia.   What is the procedure for a DEXA scan? The scan takes around 15 minutes. Whilst lying down on an X-ray table, a scan will be carried out by a radiographer. A large scanning arm passes over the body to measure bone density in the centre of the skeleton. A low-dose beam of X-rays passes through the part of the body being examined, which is usually the lumbar spine and both hips. Bone density varies throughout different parts of the skeleton and more than one of part of the body may be scanned. Some of the X-rays that pass through the body are absorbed by the bone and soft tissue. An X-ray detector inside the scanning arm is able to measure the amount of X-rays that have passed through the body, which then produces an image of the scanned part of the body that is sent to a computer. What do my DEXA scan results show? The bone density measurements will be compared with the bone density of a young healthy adult (known as a T score) or with an adult of your age, gender and ethnicity (known as a Z score). There are special detectors in the in the scanner that measures the amount of radiation that has passed through the bones. The comparison of bone density with a healthy person’s is calculated as a standard deviation (SD) score. It measures the difference between the patients current bone density and the expected value in terms of the natural spread of values in the healthy population. The T score shows that: Above -1 SD is normal Between -1 and -2.5 SD is mildly reduced bone mineral density compared to peak bone mass At or below -2.5 SD is defined as osteoporosis If the Z score is below -2 then the bone density is lower than it should be. The bone mass density shows a good indication of bone strength but it does not mean it can predict whether a fracture will occur.   Who should have a DEXA scan? A DEXA scan is advised for those who have a bone fracture following a minor injury. It is also advised if a patient is considered at increased risk of osteoporosis. The thinning of the bones means that the patient is more likely to have a fracture. If the doctor thinks a patient is at risk of developing osteoporosis they may use the Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX) risk calculator. This calculates the likeliness of bone fracture following a minor knock. If the risk level is medium then a DEXA scan is necessary. The scan can also monitor if a current treatment plan for osteoporosis is working. ...

Diabetes

What is diabetes? Diabetes mellitus (DM), or just diabetes refers to a group of metabolic diseases which result in an inability to regulate blood sugar levels. Having too much glucose in your blood can damage the kidneys, eyes, nerves and other parts of the body, including the blood vessels themselves. In extreme cases, diabetes can cause heart disease and strokes, and patients may even require amputation of limbs. This inability to control blood sugar comes from a problem with the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced by the pancreas, enters the bloodstream, and moves glucose out of the blood and into cells, where it is used to generate energy. There are two types of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes – the cells that create insulin are attacked and destroyed by the body’s immune system as part of a defective immune response. It can develop rapidly over weeks or even days. Type 2 diabetes – either the body does not produce enough insulin, or the body’s cells stop responding to it. Patients may not be diagnosed for years, due to generic symptoms. It is by far the most common type of diabetes.   What are the symptoms? Classic diabetes symptoms include: Thirst Frequent urination Fatigue Itching around the genitals, or thrush Weight loss/muscle loss Blurred vision Slow healing   What causes diabetes? Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition – something causes the immune system to attack healthy pancreatic cells that produce insulin. It appears to run in families, so may be genetic. No one knows exactly what causes the immune system to attack the pancreas, but one theory is that it is triggered by a virus. Type 2 diabetes is acquired, and usually affects older people. It tends to be associated with obesity and lack of exercise.   How can it be prevented? Type 1 diabetes appears to be genetic, so there is no way to prevent it. To reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, it is important to have a healthy and balanced diet, take plenty of exercise, and lose weight if you are overweight or obese. Stopping smoking and drinking alcohol in moderation are also useful tips.   What is the treatment? Diabetes can’t be cured, but the symptoms can be managed. A healthy diet, regular exercise, and regular blood tests are essential to keep blood glucose levels in check. Type 1 diabetes patients require regular insulin injections for the rest of their lives to make up for the lack of insulin production by the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes patients may eventually need to take tablets, as the condition is progressive (it will worsen over time). You should see your doctor or a specialist as soon as possible if you are experiencing symptoms. If diagnosed with diabetes, a patient is usually referred to a specialist care team for treatment and long-term monitoring of the condition. ...

Diabetes diet

What is the diabetes diet?  Correct nutrition is essential for patients who want to be able to control their diabetes, both for type I and II. The diabetic patient needs to know what their nutritional needs are and plan with their dietician to ensure that they are properly controlling their condition, based on the three pillars: diet, insulin, and physical exercise. When a patient has diabetes, their body is unable to produce or use insulin properly. This causes high glucose (sugar) levels in the blood. A healthy diet can help maintain blood sugar levels within a normal range, which is why a healthy diet is so important for the proper management of diabetes so that there are no complications.   What does the diabetes diet involve? Meals should be eaten at regular intervals at the same time every day if possible. It is important to include all the different types of nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fat, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and water) in a healthy balance, which means being careful which carbohydrates and fats you eat and how much you put into your body. Trans-fats, saturated fats, and cholesterol should be avoided where possible. Fish can be a good alternative to high-fat meals. It is also important to monitor how much sodium you have in your diet.     How to prepare for it A professional dietician can help the patient build a personalised meal plan. This diet should take into account the patient’s weight, any medications they’re taking, their lifestyle, and any other health issues that the patient may have. The nutrition specialist will recommend a diet that requires the patient to:  Limit foods with high sugar content Eat small portions during the day Pay attention to the amount of carbohydrates consumed Eat a variety of whole food, fruits, and vegetables Eat less fat Limit alcohol consumption Limit salt intake The specialist will advise and recommend what next steps should be taken. The aim is for the patient to learn how to manage their daily meals and how to cope with the condition as well as possible. ...

Diseases of the pituitary and hypothalamus

There are a number of diseases which can affect the pituitary and hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is part of the brain and the pituitary gland is situated just underneath. Both are responsible for the production and regulation of various hormones. When either of these glands are affected, a range of conditions can occur. Common causes The most common cause of a problem is the growth of a benign tumour known as an adenoma. A benign tumour is non-cancerous, but when it grows it starts to push on the hypothalamus or pituitary gland it can cause problems with the production of hormones. More rarely, problems in the pituitary and hypothalamus can be caused by: a condition present from birth blood loss anorexia the complications of brain surgery. Common conditions Diseases of the pituitary and hypothalamus are rare, but the most common conditions include: Acromeglay – this involves having too much growth hormone in the body, leading to swollen hands and feet in adults and gigantism in children. Adult growth hormone deficiency – having too little growth hormone can cause loss of muscle and strength, fatigue, depression, and an increase in abdominal fat. Cushing’s disease – this condition involves the overproduction of the hormone cortisol. It is more commonly caused by taking steroids for arthritis, and can lead to weak muscles, weight gain, excessive hair growth, and mood swings. Diabetes insipidus – a problem with the production of the hormone vasopressin, hindering the ability of your kidneys to hold water. The main symptoms include urinating too often and thirstiness. Prolactinoma – an excessive production of the hormone prolactin, with symptoms including lowered sex drive, infertility, and irregular periods in women. Hypopituitarism – refers to the underproduction of two or more hormones in the pituitary glands, causing a wide range of symptoms, from tiredness and muscle weakness to dry skin, reduced fertility, and vision disturbance. Overall, the range of symptoms that can be caused by issues in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus is very wide, due to the central function they play in regulating hormone production all over the body. Which type of specialist treats diseases of the pituitary and hypothalamus? An endocrinologist specialises in the diagnosis and treatment of hormone problems. Generally, most conditions affecting the pituitary gland and hypothalamus can be treated. If the cause is a tumour, surgery will be considered. If not, it is possible to treat a deficiency in hormones with hormone supplements. To book a consultation with an endocrinologist, click here. ...

Eating disorders

What are eating disorders? An eating disorder is when someone has a very unhealthy attitude to food, body weight or shape. Eating disorders are serious illnesses that can prove fatal if not treated. The most common types of eating disorders are: Anorexia nervosa: when an individual tries to keep their body weight as low as possible by not eating enough or exercising excessively, or both. Bulimia: characterised by periods of binging and then purging by either use of laxatives or by being deliberately sick. Binge eating disorder (BED: loss of control over eating, consuming large portions all at once until you feel ill and consumed by feelings of guilt. Women are more likely to suffer from these types of disorders. They tend to occur in adolescence and are often accompanied by depression and anxiety disorders. What symptoms do they present? The common symptoms of eating disorders are: Excessive exercise Worrying a lot about your weight and body shape Eating very little Inducing vomiting after eating Taking laxatives Depression Mood swings Having strict routines around food Avoiding social settings that could involve food Additional physical signs include: A weight that is very low Amenorrhoea (absence of menstruation) Digestion problems Fatigue Feeling cold and dizzy What causes eating disorders? The exact causes of eating disorders are not known, however, some risk factors include: Having a family history of depression, substance abuse and eating disorders. You have been criticised in the past for your weight or body shape. You are overly concerned about your weight, for example, because of the nature of your work (e.g. being a model). You suffer from anxiety and have low self-esteem. You have been sexually abused. Can eating disorders be prevented? Prevention of eating disorders refers to any programs or interventions that reduce the risk factors of developing such a disorder. This includes primary and secondary prevention. Primary prevention aims to prevent the onset of an eating disorder, whilst secondary prevention tries to reduce the severity and duration of an eating disorder in someone who has already been diagnosed. What is the treatment for eating disorders? Treatment may differ slightly between each case and each type of eating disorder. Recovering from an eating disorder is entirely possible, but recovery can take a while and it will be a different experience for each person. Physically, treatment will aim to increase your nutritional intake, stop purging and reduce excessive exercise. Together, these will allow the individual to reach a healthier weight. Further to this, treatment will involve individual, group and family psychotherapy sessions (e.g. CBT), nutritional counselling, medical monitoring and medication. Medications that may be given include anti-depressants, but medication must not be the only form of treatment for eating disorders, and may not be given to patients under the age of 18. ...

Growth hormone

Excess secretion of the growth hormone can cause disorders such as gigantism or acromegaly, characterized by abnormal body growth. When this adrenal disease occurs when the child is still growing, before the growth plates are closed, it is called gigantism and the most common cause is a benign tumour in the pituitary; if the disorder affects adults, it is called acromegaly. Children who suffer from this disease are often extremely large for his age. Some of the symptoms may include delayed puberty, front and mandibular prominence, large hands and feet with thick fingers, weakness, shortness of side vision, etc....

Hirsutism

Hirsutism is the presence of excessive body hair in places where hair does not usually grow. In most cases, this abnormal growth of hair is produced by a greater presence of androgen hormones. Hirsutism is usually hereditary, although polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is another common cause. ...

Hyperandrogenism

Hyperandrogenism, or androgen excess is a disorder characterized by an excessive presence of androgens in women. Androgens are male sex hormones (testosterone, androsterone, androstenedione) that cause the development of certain male characteristics or body changes such as increased body hair (hirsutism), alopecia, acne or seborrhoea, disturbances in the menstrual cycle, elimination of ovulation, and change in the voice. The main causes of this disorder include polycystic ovarian syndrome, a malfunction of the adrenal gland, enzyme deficiency during pregnancy (aromatase deficiency, when the disorder is of gestational origin), or the administration of certain drugs. Treatment depends on the causes. ...

Hypercalcaemia

Hypercalcaemia is too much calcium in the blood. There may be many causes behind hypercalcaemia such as inherited disorders, hyperparathyroidism, or renal failure, among others. ...

Hypercholesterolemia

What is hypercholesterolemia? Hypercholesterolemia is an increase in the level of cholesterol in the blood above what is considered normal. The elevated level of cholesterol is related to coronary problems, lifestyle, gender, and diet. Various factors play a role in the disease; genetic and dietary factors need to be taken into account, as well as other ones related to physical activity. Symptoms of hypercholesterolemia: Patients often do not perceive that anything is wrong with them until the possible occurrence of a cardiovascular event, such as a heart attack or angina. In some cases, cholesterol deposits under the skin may appear (xanthomas or xanthelasma). What are the causes of hypercholesterolemia? The main factors contributing to hypercholesterolemia are: An unhealthy diet: excessive consumption of animal fats or alcohol makes the body consume other types of nutrients first, so it is more likely that cholesterol is not broken down and hence it accumulates in the arteries. Hepatic, renal or endocrine diseases. Familial hypercholesterolemia: a hereditary disease in which cholesterol cannot be broken down, leading to a gradual increase in its level. Can hypercholesterolemia be prevented? The main recommendations for preventing hypercholesterolemia are as follows: Follow a balanced diet (it is important to avoid saturated fats). Do physical activity of moderate intensity on a regular basis. Following these two recommendations also helps to prevent or control other risk factors for cardiovascular diseases that are sometimes associated with hypercholesterolemia, e.g. obesity or hypertension. How is hypercholesterolemia treated? Generally, all patients with hypercholesterolemia should improve their diet in order to reduce cholesterol levels, increase their physical activity and eliminate risk factors that could promote the development of associated diseases. If the dietary treatment does not achieve the desired goal, a pharmacological treatment should be added, one individualised to the patient, given that other risk factors should be taken into account, along with associated diseases. ...

Hyperprolactinaemia

What is hyperprolactinaemia? Hyperprolactinaemia is a condition caused by abnormally high levels of prolactin in the blood. Prolactin is a hormone produced by a gland located at the base of the head. In women, it is responsible for milk production during pregnancy (galactorrhoea) and for breast development during puberty (together with oestrogen). In men, it is associated with sexual desire, gynaecomastia and impotence. One of its functions is indeed to lower testosterone levels and to mobilise fatty acids. Prognosis Usually, the outlook for hyperprolactinaemia greatly depends on what causes it, on your age and overall state of health. What are the symptoms? One of the most common symptoms in women is an alteration in the menstrual pattern. Other symptoms in women include vaginal dryness, milk production not associated with childbirth, low progesterone levels after ovulation, oligomenorrhoea, and amenorrhoea; In men, the symptoms include galactorrhoea, gynaecomastia (an increase in the size of male breast tissue), impotence, sexual desire reduction, infertility, muscle mass loss, and body hair loss. What causes it? You will need to do a blood test to check the levels of prolactin in your blood. Should prolactin levels be elevated, you will do a head X-ray scan (specifically looking at the pituitary gland and hypothalamus) to determine whether there are microadenomas or adenomas in the pituitary gland or nearby it. In case there’s a tumour mass in the optic chiasma, you may experience vision disorders. In that case, you should do a visual field test. What causes it? Hyperprolactinaemia could be caused by physiological, pathological, neurological or pharmacological factors. Physiological factors include: Pregnancy; Puerperium or post-partum period; Stress; Exercising; Sleep; High protein intake; Breastfeeding; Sexual intercourse; Pathological causes include: Pituitary adenoma and prolactinoma (a benignant tumour that secretes prolactin); Non-secretory pituitary adenomas; Acromegaly; Empty sella syndrome (ESS); Cushing syndrome; Meningioma (malignant tumour of the meninges); Dysgerminoma (testicular cancer); Sarcoidosis;  Pharmacological causes or drug-induced hyperprolactinaemia:  Tricyclic antidepressants; Anti-epileptic drugs; Anti-hypertensive agents; Antiemetics (against nausea and vomiting); Antihistamines; Neurological causes: Herpes zoster (shingles)lesions; Spinal injury; Other causes: Hypothyroidism; Kidney failure; Cirrhosis; Adrenal insufficiency; How is it treated? Asymptomatic hyperprolactinaemia requires no special treatments. In other cases, the treatment largely depends on what causes it. Which doctor should I talk to? To accurately diagnose and treat hyperprolactinaemia, you should see an endocrinologist. ...

Hyperthyroidism

What is hyperthyroidism? Hyperthyroidism, otherwise known as overactive thyroid, occurs when the thyroid gland produces an excess of thyroid hormone. The thyroid gland is located in the base of the neck, and it is responsible for producing thyroid hormone, which helps to control metabolism. This affects functions in the body such as temperature, and the internal body clock (affecting sleep). An excess of thyroid hormone can therefore affect the metabolism and cause problems in the body. Hyperthyroidism more commonly affects women, and while it can occur at any age, it is usually seen appearing more in those between 20 and 40 years of age. What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism? As the thyroid gland affects many bodily functions connected to metabolism, hyperthyroidism has a wide range of symptoms. These include: Heat sensitivity Feeling nervous, anxious, or irritable Fatigue Mood swings A more frequent need to pee Weakness in the muscles Trouble sleeping Lack of sexual interest Feeling constantly thirsty Swelling in the neck (due to an enlarged thyroid gland) Irregular heart beat Excessive sweating Hair loss Weight loss An itchy rash (hives) Symptoms of hyperthyroidism can have a number of causes, but it is always best to have them checked by a GP. What causes hyperthyroidism? Hyperthyroidism can have multiple causes. The majority of cases occur as a result of Graves’ disease, a condition in which the immune system attacks the thyroid, causing it to produce too much thyroid hormone. Hyperthyroidism can also be caused by certain types of medication, typically those which contain iodine. An increase of iodine in the body can cause the thyroid to produce too much thyroid hormone. Nodules, which are lumps occurring on the thyroid, can also cause hyperthyroidism as they contain thyroid tissue. This excess in thyroid tissue can result in an excess of thyroid hormone. Less commonly, thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid), thyroid cancer, and benign tumours of the pituitary gland can cause hyperthyroidism. How can it be prevented? Hyperthyroidism is usually caused by Graves’ disease, which is a genetic disorder. As such, there is no means to prevent the condition. However, certain lifestyle measures can help reduce the risk, such as not smoking, keeping a healthy diet, exercising, and keeping stress levels minimal. What is the treatment for hyperthyroidism? Hyperthyroidism is usually treatable and patients are advised to see an endocrinologist, who specialises in hormone conditions, to advise the most suitable treatment method. Treatment usually comes in the form of medication, radiation therapy (radioiodine treatment which damages the thyroid and causes it to produce less thyroid hormone), or surgery, which aims to remove part, or all of the thyroid so it is unable to produce thyroid hormone.    ...

Hypogonadism

Hypogonadism is an endocrine disorder in which the testes in men, and the ovaries in women, produce low quantities of testosterone and oestrogen respectively. The origins of this disorder can vary and may include hereditary factors, some types of surgery, autoimmune diseases, kidney or liver problems and infections. The most common symptoms of hypogonadism in women are the loss of menstruation and pubic hair, hot flushes, low libido. In men, the symptoms include loss of hair on beard and body, loss of muscle tone, breast enlargement and erection problems. The low production of testosterone in men is known as male hypogonadism. ...

Hypopituitarism

What is hypopituitarism? Hypopituitarism is a condition in which the pituitary gland is not producing normal quantities of certain hormones. The pituitary gland is located below the brain and is connected to the hypothalamus. It is responsible for producing different types of hormone, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and growth hormone (GH). Prognosis: This disease requires continuous treatment. Nevertheless, patients can lead a normal life, provided they are managing their condition correctly. Symptoms of hypopituitarism In most cases, the symptoms develop gradually, hence they may not be noticed for a while. Moreover, the symptoms depend on which hormones are lacking. The most common symptoms include: Fatigue, loss of energy, muscle weakness Low blood pressure Dry skin Reduction in appetite with weight loss Nausea and vomiting Loss or reduction in libido How is hypopituitarism diagnosed? Testing for hypopituitarism consists of a physical examination of the thyroid gland, sex organs and eyes to detect signs of hormone deficiency and symptoms associated with the disease. Blood tests may also be required to determine the level of hormones in the blood. In some cases, a stimulation test may be done to determine whether certain hormones are deficient, principally cortisol or growth hormone. In addition, urine testing may be done, as it may indicate a deficiency in antidiuretic hormone. What are the causes of hypopituitarism? Some of the possible causes are as follows: Brain surgery or a brain tumour, in the pituitary gland or hypothalamus. Cranial injury Infection or inflammation of the brain Radiotherapy to the brain Haemorrhage caused by an aneurysm Can it be prevented? This disease cannot be prevented. However, early diagnosis may help in managing it correctly and reducing the number of symptoms experienced. Treatments for hypopituitarism There are different types of treatment, including: Treatment of the cause : if the cause is a tumour, the treatment will consist of removing the tumour surgically, if this is possible. Removal may reduce certain symptoms. Hormonal treatment consists of replenishing the deficient hormones. Medications for hypopituitarism In case of a hormone deficiency, the possible medications are: Levothyroxine, if there is a TSH deficit Hydrocortisone / cortisone, if there is an adrenocortical deficit (ACTH) Testosterone / Oestradiol+progesterone (if no desire for fertility), together with injections of GnRH (if fertility desired) GH, if it is shown to be deficient Which specialist treats it? Hypopituitarism is treated by endocrinologists. ...

Hypothalamus

What is the hypothalamus? The hypothalamus is a small section of the brain found at the base of the brain, close to the pituitary gland. Although it is small, it is very important and plays a crucial role in regulating numerous bodily cycles. The hypothalamus is made up of three regions: Anterior region – made up of various nuclei which are mainly responsible for the secretion of hormones, often interacting with the pituitary gland. Middle region – controls appetite and stimulated the production of growth hormones for body development. Posterior region – regulated body temperature by causing shivering and controlling sweat production. What does the hypothalamus do? The hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining certain functions: Regulating body temperature, heart rate, thirst, hunger, sleep cycles and blood pressure (homeostasis). Releasing certain hormones that trigger the production of other hormones throughout the body. What are some common conditions that affect the hypothalamus? If the hypothalamus is not functioning properly, this is known as hypothalamic dysfunction. This can be caused by: Injuries to the head Congenital defects Brain surgery Tumours Eating disorders Genetic disorders A disorder that results from hypothalamic dysfunction is Prader-Willi syndrome which is inherited and results from a hypothalamus that is unable to detect when someone is full after eating. Hence, there is a constant feeling of hunger and needing to eat. People with this syndrome have slower metabolisms and often have learning disabilities. What are the symptoms of conditions involving the hypothalamus? Symptoms that indicate hypothalamic dysfunction include: Changes in appetite Weight gain or loss Difficulty sleeping Dehydration Frequent urination Fluctuations in body temperature High or low blood pressure Delayed puberty How can I keep my hypothalamus healthy? To keep your hypothalamus healthy it is important to sleep enough, exercise regularly and to eat a balanced diet. ...

Infertility

What is infertility? Infertility is the inability of a couple to become pregnant through natural means. Infertility affects the couple, both the man and the woman, who cannot have a child naturally. There are two types of infertility: primary infertility, affecting couples who have not become pregnant after at least one year of unprotected sexual intercourse, and secondary infertility, affecting couples who were able to become pregnant in the past but are now unable to. Symptoms of infertility: There are various symptoms of infertility in men and women. In women, symptoms may be related to the menstrual cycle and ovulation: abnormal menstruation, with more or less bleeding than usual; irregular menstruation, when the number of days between each menstruation is different each month; amenorrhoea, i.e., no menstruation; or dysmenorrhea, very painful menstruation. There may also be symptoms unrelated to menstruation, such as pain during sexual intercourse. In men, the symptoms of sperm-related infertility include small amounts of ejaculate. There are also symptoms unrelated to semen, such as changes in hair growth, changes in sexual desire and erection problems. Men may also have a low sperm-count, making the chance of conceiving naturally more difficult. What causes infertility? Common causes of infertility among men and women are: Birth defects of the reproductive system Cancer, tumours, chemotherapy drugs, radiation therapy Excessive alcohol consumption Hormonal imbalances Obesity Scarring from sexually transmitted infections, abdominal surgery, or endometriosis Smoking Older age Pelvic infection In women, infertility may be caused by: Autoimmune treatments Clotting disorders Diabetes Excessive exercise Eating disorders Neoplastic lesions of the cervix and/or uterus, ovarian cysts, polycystic ovary syndrome Tubal ligation Thyroid problems In men, the causes of infertility may include: Impotence Infection Use of certain medications such as cimetidine, spironolactone, and nitrofurantoin Retrograde ejaculation Scarring from sexually transmitted diseases, injury, or surgery Environmental toxins Vasectomy or vasovasostomy failure Can infertility be prevented? Generally, if the origin of the infertility is genetic or caused by disease, then nothing can be done. However, you can avoid certain factors that may cause infertility: Take preventive measures against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) Do not use drugs Do not drink alcohol frequently or excessively Maintain good personal hygiene For women, have a gynaecological check-up once a year once you are sexually active For men, wear loose underwear and avoid hot baths, saunas and exposure to sources of radiation What is infertility treatment? Methods to treat infertility in men and women include taking hormones to resolve the hormonal imbalance, supplements to improve fertility, and antibiotics in the case of infection. For women, having minor surgery to remove blockages or scar tissue from the fallopian tubes, uterus, or pelvic area is another option. If these methods are unsuccessful, assisted reproduction techniques can be tried. ...

Insulin resistance

What is insulin resistance? Insulin is a hormone made in the pancreas. It is released into the bloodstream when blood glucose levels rise after eating, as it aids the body’s cells in absorbing glucose from the blood and reduces glucose production in the liver, thus preventing blood sugar levels from becoming too high. If muscle, fat and liver cells develop insulin resistance, it means they do not respond properly to the presence of insulin, and as a result, their ability to absorb glucose from the blood is decreased. A greater concentration of insulin will be needed to achieve the desired effect.   Prognosis of insulin resistance Insulin resistance typically causes the body to produce more insulin to compensate – a condition known as hyperinsulinaemia. Moreover, it is a driving factor behind the development of type 2 diabetes, prediabetes and gestational diabetes.   Symptoms of insulin resistance There are usually no symptoms of insulin resistance when the condition first develops; symptoms manifest later as a knock-on effect of high blood glucose levels, including: Hunger Lethargy Difficulty concentrating High blood pressure High cholesterol levels Weight gain, particularly around the belly   Medical tests to diagnose insulin resistance Insulin resistance can be diagnosed by testing the blood for high insulin levels. However, doctors rarely test specifically for insulin resistance, as some of the most effective tests, such as the euglycemic clamp are too expensive and complicated to be carried out in a doctor’s surgery. It is most commonly diagnosed during blood tests for prediabetes, as prediabetes rarely occurs without insulin resistance.   What are the causes of insulin resistance? The causes of insulin resistance are not completely understood, but several risk factors that could contribute to its development have been identified: Being overweight/obese Little physical activity A diet that is high in calories, sugar and/or carbohydrates Chronic stress Long-term use of steroids taken in high doses Certain other conditions, such as polycystic ovary disease and Cushing’s disease   Treatments for insulin resistance There are several ways to reduce the effects of insulin resistance, and in some cases reverse it. These methods revolve around losing weight and increasing physical activity. Effective lifestyle changes could include: Adopting a low-carbohydrate, low-calorie or ketogenic diet Walking for 30 minutes a day Increasing weekly levels of exercise, e.g. going to the gym Weight loss surgery   Which type of specialist treats insulin resistance? Doctors specialising in endocrinology, diabetes and metabolism are usually able to diagnose and treat insulin resistance and prediabetes. ...

Ketogenic diet

What is the ketogenic diet? The ketogenic diet is a low carb diet where the body produces small fuel modules in the liver called ketones, which are used as energy. Ketones are an alternative fuel for the body, used when the blood sugar (glucose) is in short supply. Through eating very few carbohydrates, moderate amounts of protein and high levels of natural fats, ketones are produced. They are produced in the liver from fat and used throughout the body as fuel.   How does the ketogenic diet work? The entire body changes its fuel supply to run almost entirely on fat. The levels of insulin become very low, which enables fat burning to increase dramatically. The body is in a state of ketosis when it produces ketones.   What foods can be eaten on a ketogenic diet? It is important to track the number of carbohydrates that are being consumed daily. Some people will find that they can eat 50g of carbohydrates and lose weight, whilst others stick to 20g or less a day. Typical foods to be consumed on the ketogenic diet include: • Fish and seafood • Cheese • Natural fats such as avocado, grass-fed butter, coconut oil and olive oil • Meat • Eggs • Vegetables that grow above the ground.   What foods are to be avoided on a ketogenic diet? The main foods to avoid are those that contain a lot of sugar and starch. Foods high in carbohydrates such as bread, pasta, rice and potatoes should be avoided. Fruits should be avoided, although some fruits such as berries can be eaten in moderation. All processed foods should be cut out.   What are the benefits of the ketogenic diet? Weight loss – fat burning is vastly increased. Appetite control Constant energy and mental performance Control blood sugar and reverse type 2 diabetes – blood sugar levels are controlled, lowered and reduce the negative impact of high insulin levels. Improved health markers – improve cholesterol, blood sugar and insulin levels and blood pressure. Increased physical endurance – there is a constant access to all the energy of the fat stores. Top athletes follow the ketogenic diet for an increase in performance. Control epilepsy – the diet was originally intended as medical therapy for children with epilepsy since the 1920s. Reduce the risk of cancer - lowering carbohydrates reduces your levels of glucose, which is the fuel that feeds cancer cells. ...

Osteoporosis of the spine

What is osteoporosis of the spine? Osteoporosis is a disease in which the bones become weak and brittle. This results from the body either making too much or too little bone. When examining bones through a microscope, healthy bones have a healthy honey-comb-like structure, whereas bones affected by osteoporosis have larger spaces, weakening their structure. As a result, bones affected by osteoporosis are very susceptible to fractures and breaks. Osteoporosis can affect any bone, but commonly it affects your spine. Prognosis: Whilst many will suffer from a spinal fracture resulting from osteoporosis for a while before being diagnosed and seeking treatment, once a diagnosis of osteoporosis is made, treatments for this condition can work to prevent future fractures. Symptoms of osteoporosis of the spine: When the spine is affected by osteoporosis, fractures of the vertebrae can result in pain, a hunched posture (spinal curvature) and a resulting loss in height. Often, the pain will worsen when walking or standing, and moving your upper body can be difficult. Fractures in the lower spine often result in greater pain than those in the upper spine. Medical tests to diagnose osteoporosis of the spine: If osteoporosis is suspected, you will likely have a DXA or DEXA scan which is a low-intensity X-ray scan that measures bone density. This is a painless procedure and is proven to be very reliable in diagnosing osteoporosis. If you have back pain, it is likely that you will receive an X-ray as well to confirm a fracture in the vertebrae. What are the causes of osteoporosis of the spine? A reduction in bone density is normal as we age, but some have a greater loss in bone density than normal. In addition, women are more at risk of developing osteoporosis than men, particularly following the menopause, when a reduction in bone density is fastest. Smoking, a low BMI, a family history of the condition and certain medications can also put you at risk of developing osteoporosis. Can osteoporosis of the spine be prevented? It is not possible to prevent osteoporosis completely, but you can reduce the risk of developing it by taking certain measures: Diet – rich in calcium and vitamin D. Smoking cessation Reduced alcohol intake Frequent exercise (weight-bearing and muscle strengthening exercises) Treatments for osteoporosis of the spine: If you have suffered a spine fracture as a result of osteoporosis, you will be given pain medication to reduce the pain whilst the fracture heals. You will also be advised to have physical therapy, as movement is important in healing and preventing fractures. Some people may require a back brace or support. You will also likely take medications to improve bone strength. Medications for treating osteoporosis of the spine: The following medications are used in treating osteoporosis: HRT – for menopausal women. Bisphosphonates – slow down the rate of bone loss. Selective oestrogen receptor modulators Other hormone treatments Which type of specialist treats osteoporosis of the spine? Osteoporosis and resulting spinal fractures are treated by both rheumatologists and endocrinologists. ...

Parathyroid gland

  The surgery of the parathyroid glands involves the partial or total removal of the glands near the thyroid. The minimally invasive surgery can be performed by standard surgery or through an incision in the neck. The procedure is as follows: the problem is identified through techniques that identify the hormone in the bloodstream and other tests that locate the hormone in the tissue, such as cervical ultrasound and scintigraphy. Through a small incision of about 10 or 15mm a camera of 5mm is inserted to help the surgeons perform the operation, displaying the procedure through a monitor connected to the camera. ...

Thyroid

The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland located in the front of the neck, below the Adam’s apple. The thyroid is shaped a little like a butterfly, and is responsible for producing hormones throughout your body. The hormones produced by the thyroid help to control such things as the burning of calories in your body, the speed of your body’s metabolism, and regulates the body’s development from birth to old age.   Diseases that can affect the thyroid   There are a number of diseases and disorders that can affect the thyroid, which usually cause either the production of too much or not enough hormones that the body needs, which can lead to other problems elsewhere. Problems that can affect the thyroid include:   Hyperthyroidism Otherwise known as overactive thyroid, this condition is when the thyroid gland produces too much of the thyroid hormone. An excess of the hormone can lead to many problems, such as changes in mood, anxiety, tiredness and heart palpitations amongst others. Hypothyroidism The opposite of hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism is when not enough of the thyroid hormone is produced, leading to symptoms of constipation, feeling cold and tired, and difficulty concentrating. If a person is suffering with hypothyroidism at a young age, it can cause problems with growth, delayed puberty, and irregular periods. Goitre This is the term used for an enlarged thyroid, and is associated with a malfunctioning thyroid. It can cause symptoms of coughing, difficulty swallowing and even difficulty breathing in some cases. Thyroid cancer Along with other organs and glands in the body, the thyroid is also susceptible to cancer. It is more common in women aged between 25 and 65, and is more commonplace in Asian people, though it can affect anyone. Thyroiditis This is the general term for an inflamed thyroid. It can refer to a number of conditions such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Postpartum thyroiditis, and Subacute thyroiditis. All of these conditions affect different age groups, and have different kinds of symptoms, though the common symptom is swelling of the thyroid gland.   How are thyroid problems treated?   Treatment for a thyroid disorder varies depending on the type of condition. Some may be treated with medication, where others may require surgery. Medication can be prescribed to correct the hormone levels produced by the thyroid gland, such as to help produce more hormone in the case of hypothyroidism, or to restrict the amount of hormone produced with hyperthyroidism. When surgery is required, it will usually involve removal of part of the gland, or to remove part of the swelling or goitre. The surgical treatment for patients with thyroid cancer is good, with many patients making a full recovery when the cancer is found early. ...

Thyroid nodules

What are thyroid nodules? Thyroid nodules are abnormal growths of thyroid cells and tissue which form a lump in the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is located in the neck and releases thyroid hormone, which helps to control the body’s metabolism. Thyroid nodules are usually non-cancerous (benign), but some are cancerous, which means thyroid nodules must be evaluated in order to treat thyroid cancer in its early stages. What are the symptoms? Thyroid nodules usually do not cause symptoms, and most are found during routine examinations or through CT scans or other similar imaging tests. Most thyroid nodules are non-functioning, but some do produce an excess of thyroid hormone, which results in hyperthyroidism. Thyroid nodules may become noticeable if the nodule is large enough, as a lump may be seen on the neck, or the nodule may cause problems breathing and swallowing due to it restricting the windpipe. What causes thyroid nodules? Thyroid nodules do not always have a known or apparent cause. Some nodules are associated with iodine deficiency, but this is uncommon as iodine is often added to salt and other foods. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an autoimmune condition, is associated with an increased risk of developing thyroid nodules. Thyroid nodules can be caused by an excess of thyroid tissue, swelling of the thyroid (goitre), and thyroid cysts. However, it is not always clear why growths and swelling occur.   How can they be prevented? Thyroid nodules cannot be prevented. There are tests which can determine if an individual has a thyroid nodule, but these should always be discussed with a doctor. What is the treatment? Treatment for thyroid nodules depends on whether the nodule is benign or cancerous, and if it is functioning or not. If a thyroid nodule is cancerous, it must be removed surgically. Thyroid cancer, on the whole, is treatable and curable. Surgery may also be performed if the thyroid nodule is particularly large and causes the patient discomfort. The nodule also may be removed if it is actively secreting hormones. If a thyroid nodule is benign, then treatment may not be necessary, and the thyroid nodule will be monitored closely. Thyroid function tests and physical examinations will be performed regularly to make sure the nodule is still benign. If the thyroid nodule produces thyroid hormones, this can be treated using medication, radioactive iodine treatment, or in some cases, surgery.   ...

Thyroiditis

What is thyroiditis? The term thyroiditis refers to an infection of the thyroid gland, and is a general term – there are several types of thyroiditis causing inflammation in various ways, and treatment varies depending on the kind which the patient has. The thyroid gland produces hormones which help to control the body’s metabolism and growth. Types of thyroiditis include Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, De Quervain’s thyroiditis, postpartum thyroiditis, drug-induced thyroiditis, radiation-induced thyroiditis, infectious thyroiditis, and silent (or painless) thyroiditis.  What are the symptoms of thyroiditis? Symptoms vary depending on the type of thyroiditis contracted. De Quervain’s thyroiditis, for example, can cause fever, and pain to occur in the jaw, neck, and ear. The thyroid gland may, in addition, release too much thyroid hormone, causing symptoms of hyperthyroidism, e.g anxiety, heart palpitations, and inability to sleep (insomnia). Symptoms of an overactive thyroid gland are also experienced in postpartum thyroiditis, which affects a very small amount of women shortly after giving birth. These symptoms may be seen in silent thyroiditis, drug-induced thyroiditis, radiation-induced thyroiditis, and acute thyroiditis. Equally, these types of thyroiditis may display symptoms of an underactive thyroid gland. An overactive thyroid gland produces symptoms including: Anxiety Mood swings Trouble sleeping Feeling weak, or muscle weakness Lack of sexual interest Nervousness Irritability Hyperactivity Fatigue Diarrhoea An increased need to urinate An underactive thyroid gland produces symptoms including: Weight gain Being constipated Muscle cramps Dry skin Hair and nails breaking easily or feeling brittle Loss of sex drive Irregular periods Heavy periods Depression Feeling sensitive to the cold What causes thyroiditis? As thyroiditis comes in many forms, it can be caused in different ways. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis is caused by the immune system attacking the thyroid gland. De Quervain’s thyroiditis is caused by a viral infection such as the flu. Thyroiditis can also occur in women who have recently given birth, although this is more common in women with type 1 diabetes. Certain medications and radiation (e.g from radiotherapy) can also affect the thyroid gland, causing thyroiditis. Lastly, infectious thyroiditis (also called acute thyroiditis can be caused by an infection. How can thyroiditis be prevented? Most types of thyroiditis cannot be prevented, but lifestyle measures and looking after your body can help in the event of an infection. Get regular exercise, drink in moderation, and if you smoke, it is advisable that you give up. What is the treatment for thyroiditis? Treatment for thyroiditis depends on the kind which the patient has. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis is an autoimmune condition and it can take months or years to even detect. In Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, treatment focuses on relieving symptoms, as it is incurable. Other types of thyroiditis can be treated with medication, which attempts to restore normal thyroid function. Pain can be relieved with over-the-counter painkillers such as ibuprofen. In some cases, thyroiditis causes low thyroid hormone levels, meaning hormone replacement therapy may become necessary. This treatment is often lifelong. If the thyroiditis is infectious, it may be treated with antibiotics, and in children, surgery is usually necessary to remove the abnormal part of the thyroid.  ...

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